Ecoregioni Italiane (WWF)

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*Foreste Mediterranee - Foreste Sclerofille e Miste Tirreniche-Adriatiche https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrhe..._mixed_forests http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1222

The forest, woodland, and scrub of Italy’s southern coast and the surrounding islands supports a rich diversity of flora and fauna. The floral endemism rate is high, and numerous relict and threatened plant species are found here. Two rare and endemic herbivore subspecies, mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and Corsican red deer CERVO SARDO (Cervus elaphus corsicanus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...icanus-pjt.jpg, persist on islands. A wide range of birds can be found here, including a number of endemic species, such as Marmora's warbler MAGNANINA SARDA(Silvia sarda) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ly_S4E1036.jpg, and threatened raptors including Griffon vulture GRIFONE (Gyps fulvus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...sideview_A.jpg, Eleonora’s falcon FALCO DELLA REGINA (Falco eleonorae) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...orenfalke1.jpg, lanner falcon LANARIO (Falco biarmicus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Falcon_800.jpg, levant sparrowhawk SPARVIERO LEVANTINO(Accipiter brevipes), and Bonelli’s eagle AQUILA DEL BONELLI (Hieraaetus fasciatus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._perdicera.jpg. Endemic amphibia and reptile species and a large number of threatened butterfly species are also associated with certain parts of the ecoregion. In addition to coastal tourism development and urbanization, the ecoregion is threatened by water shortage and pollution problems, forest fires, and unsustainable collection of rare plants.

The Thyrrenian-Adriatic Sclerophyllous and Mixed Forests extend along the coastal lowlands of the southern half of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Corsica. They include Sardinian Island and the Dalmatian Islands. The ecoregion experiences very hot and dry summers and relatively temperate and humid to subhumid winters. Annual average temperatures range from 10-17º C, and the minimum average temperature of the coldest month ranges from 5-10º C. The annual rainfall ranges from 400-1,200 mm. From a geological point of view, three major systems can be distinguished. Paleozoic substrates such as granite, schist, micaschist, diorite, and gneiss are found on Corsica and Sardinia. Volcanic rock forms the surrounds of the active Vesubio Volcano in Campania and the foothills of the Etna volcano in Sicily. Mesozoic substrates, specifically limestone, marl, and sandstone, form the southern Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Malta, and the Dalmatian islands.

The ecoregion has four major forest zones. The Thyrrenian mixed oak forests are characterized by the predominance of mixed sclerophyllous evergreen oak LECCIO (Quercus ilex) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ex_Madonie.JPG, (Q. suber) SUGHERA
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...er_algarve.jpg) and deciduous (Quercus pubescens) ROVERELLA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ns_Tuscany.jpg, Fraxinus ornus ORNIELLO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._autunnale.jpg, Ostrya carpinifolia CARPINO NERO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...con_frutti.jpg) species. Stone pine (Pinus pinea) PINO DOMESTICO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ea_Bayonne.jpg constitutes important forests of certain coastal sand dunes, for example at Maremma Natural Park. Relict hygrophilous temperate deciduous oak forests (Quercus robur) FARNIA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Pozorkou_I.jpg appear locally in certain coastal wetlands of the Italian Peninsula (i.e. Circeo National Park) and on Corsica.

The southeastern Italian woodlands, in the Puglia region, are distinguished by the appearance of a number of Eastern Mediterranean endemic oak species (Quercus trojana) FRAGNO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Jevremovac.JPG, Q. macrolepis QUERCIA VALLONEA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._Tricase_3.JPG, together with the more frequent sclerophyllous holm oak (Quercus ilex) LECCIO and deciduous oak (Quercus pubescens) ROVERELLA species. Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) PINO D' ALEPPO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._Calenella.jpg locally constitutes significant forest stands.

The Dalmatian Island forests show a predominance of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) PINO D' ALEPPO and holm oak (Quercus ilex) LECCIO. The Dalmatian Islands host a very interesting relict and endemic pine, Pinus nigra dalmatica PINO NERO DALMATICO.

The Malta islands host one of two European relict populations of the North African endemic conifer Tetraclinis articulata GINEPRO ARTICOLATO.

The ecoregion supports a high degree of plant diversity. The endemism rate is approximately 10% of the total flora. For example, Sardinia hosts 2,054 plant species, of which 206 are endemic; the Dalmatian islands host 2,700 species, of which 179 are endemic. The ecoregion includes an important number of relict species including Quercus macrolepis, Pinus dalmatica, Platanus orientalis, Alnus cordata, Tetraclinis articulata, Thymus capitatus, and Styrax officinalis. Also present are a number of threatened plant species included in the IUCN and national Red List of vascular plants, Salvia fruticosa, S. brachypodon, Portenschlagiella ramosissima, Phyllitis sagitata, Ornithogalum visianicum, Orchis quadripunctata, Iris adriatica, Geranium dalmaticum, Euphorbia rigida, and Dianthus multinervis.

This ecoregion has significant faunal diversity, though the number of endemic species is not high. Two rare and endemic herbivores, mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus), still persist in the Sardinian forests. The ecoregion also hosts a high diversity of birds, including a number of endemic species, such as Silvia sarda, as well as threatened raptors including griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae), lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus), levant sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), and Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus).

Endemic amphibian and reptile species are also well represented in Sardinia and certain other parts of the ecoregion. Thirteen endemic forms of Dalmatian wall lizard (Podarcis melisellensis), each living on only one small island, have been described in Dalmatia. A large number of threatened butterfly species are also related to this ecoregion, specifically, the Dalmatian islands threatened species, Leptidea duponcheli, Papilio alexanor, Parnassius apollo, Maculinea nausithous, Coenonympha oedippus, Zerinthia cerisyi dalmacijae, and Protoerebia phegea dalmata.

The ecoregion has lost the majority of its forest cover, mainly as a result of agriculture, grazing, and urban development. Human population is considerable, but mainly concentrated in the coastal areas. Outstanding and extensive Aleppo pine and holm oak forests still cover huge areas of the Dalmatian Islands. The ecoregion is also distinguished by a manmade semi-natural sylvopastoral landscape, typical of Sardinian Island, and formed by extensive semi-natural cork/oak woodlands. These have historically represented very efficient and rational multipurpose management systems, adapted to the adverse environmental conditions imposed by low quality soils and a harsh climate.

Major threats are related to a number of different human activities. These include coastal tourism development and urbanization; intensive agriculture through irrigation systems, conversion of natural to agricultural land, overuse and pollution of water bodies; forest fires, mainly due to human negligence and arson; unsustainable collection of rare, wild plant species; hunting; and the spread of invasive species, promoted by human induced changes to the coastal zone (i.e. exotic species introduced for gardening, such as Carpobrotus edulis and Agave americana).

This ecoregion is equivalent to the DMEER unit of the same name. The boundaries of this unit are primarily a product of the DMEER delineation process. The ecoregion generally includes the meso-Mediterranean Holm oak forests, wild olive-locust tree formations in extreme southern Italy and Sicily as well as small areas of sub-Mediterranean and meso-supra-Mediterranean downy oak forests (Bohn et al. 2000).

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*Foreste Mediterranee - Foreste Montane Miste dell' Appennino Meridionale http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1218

The South Apennines ecoregion covers the forested mountaintops of southern Italy and Sicily. The region supports an outstanding diversity of plants. Sicily, in particular, has many endemic species. Of 2,700 vascular species, over 20% are endemic, and a majority of these are concentrated in the Madonie Mountains of this ecoregion. There is also a significant faunal diversity in the southern Apennines. The rare Sicilian shrew CROCIDURA SICILIANA (Crocidura sicula) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...01-cropped.jpg is endemic to Sicily, and persists in the montane forests. The Sila and Pollino wolf populations are the largest in Italy. The ecoregion also hosts a number of endemic birds such as the Corsican nuthatch (Sitta whiteheadi), as well as several endemic amphibians. Though the ecoregion has maintained the majority of its forest cover, pressures remain. Forestry management systems are inadequate and the mismanagement of pastures and over-grazing lead to further degradation.

The South Apennines mixed forests ecoregion geographically covers a small area that is restricted to the high mountain massifs of the Italian regions of Basilicata, Calabria, and the island of Sicily. Climatically, the ecoregion is characterized by a sharp altitudinal gradient, from the warm and sub-humid lower elevations (average annual temperature of about 14-17º C) to the cold and per-humid higher elevations (over 2,200 mm, average annual temperature of about 9-13º C). Winters are rigorous with abundant snowfall. Frequent dense fogs envelop the mountain summits of southern Calabria and northeastern Sicily.

From the geological point of view, three major geologic systems can be distinguished. Paleozoic substrates (granite, schist, micaschist, diorite, and gneiss) compose the Aspromonte (Montalto, 1,955 m) and Sila (Botte Donato, 1929 m) massifs in Calabria, and Peloritani Montains (Rocca Salvatesta, 1,340 m) in Sicily. Volcanic rock forms the active Etna Volcano (almost 3,300 m) in Sicily. Mesozoic substrates (limestone, dolomite, marl, schist-marl, sandstone) make up the Pollino massif (Serra Dolcedorme, 2,267 m; Pollino, 2,248 m) between Basilicata and Calabria, and the Nebrodi (Mt. Soro, 1,847 m) and Madonie (Pizzo Carbonara, 1,977 m) Mountains in Sicily. The Alpine orogenic has been quite intense, resulting steep, complex reliefs. The intense volcanic activity in the Etna volcano is permanently transforming the mountain relief and strongly influencing the vegetation dynamic as well as human land-uses.

The wide altitudinal range of this ecoregion results in several forest zones. The lowest elevations are characterized by the predominance of mixed sclerophyllous evergreen oak (Quercus ilex LECCIO, Q. suber SUGHERA) and deciduous (Quercus pubescens ROVERELLA, Fraxinus ornus ORNIELLO, Ostrya carpinifolia CARPINO NERO) forests. At medium elevations, mixed deciduous forests (Quercus cerris CERRO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...cus_cerris.JPG, Q. pubescens ROVERELLA, Q. frainetto FARNETTO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...rainetto01.JPG, Castanea sativa CASTAGNO EUROPEO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ativa%29_1.jpg, Ostrya carpinifolia CARPINO NERO) predominate.

The high elevations are characterized by an outstanding forest diversity, including a number of endemic and relict species. A sharp north-south gradient of plant communities is found at the highest elevations. Pinus laricio PINO LARICIO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...o_a_Lorica.jpg dominates on south-facing slopes with a more Mediterranean cold and xeric bioclimate type. Pinus laricio also dominates the highest elevations up to the timberline at Mt. Etna, colonizing volcanic rock after eruptions along with the endemic Etna birch BETULLA DELL' ETNA (Betula aetniensis) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...etnensis02.jpg. The endemic and vulnerable Pinus heldreichii leucodermis PINO LORICATO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...chii_Orjen.jpg only appears in the Pollino Mountains, where it predominates at the highest elevations, often forming mixed pine/beech forest stands. Silver fir ABETE BIANCO (Abies alba) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ete_bianco.jpg and beech FAGGIO (Fagus sylvatica) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...chenwald_1.jpg predominate on north-facing slopes and foggy, high plains, forming mixed forests where the larico pine often becomes an important component. The only relict stands (less than 100 individuals) of the endemic and very threatened Nebrodi fir (Abies nebrodensis) appear in the Madonie Mountains. Only the Etna volcano has high summits above the timber line, characterized by a thorny cushion shrub community of Astragalus siculus ASTRAGALO SICILIANO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...us_%281%29.jpg, Berberis aetniensis, and Juniperus communis alpina, as well as the Etna tree-broom GINESTRA DELL' ETNA (Genista aetniensis) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...aBroom8142.jpg.

The ecoregion hosts an outstanding plant diversity. The endemism rate of the Sicilian mountains is higher than 20%. The Sicilian total vascular flora is represented by 2,700 species and 310 endemics, and the Madonie Mountains alone support 50% of Sicily’s flora in less than 2% of the island’s area. The endemism rate of the Calabrian and Basilicata Mountains is between 10-20%.

This ecoregion has a significant faunal diversity, while the number of endemic species is reduced. The rare Sicilian shrew CROCIDURA SICILIANA (Crocidura sicula) is the only mammal endemic to Sicily, and persists in the ecoregion’s forests. Large mammals include the Italian wolf LUPO DEGLI APPENNINI (Canis lupus italicus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._Loups_003.jpg, which is absent in Sicily. The Sila and Pollino wolf populations are the largest in Italy. Among other noteworthy large mammals are the Italian roe deer CAPRIOLO (Capreolus capreolus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...s_ehk_Sokk.JPG, the wild cat GATTO SELVATICO (Felis silvestris) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...er_Wald_03.jpg, and the crested porcupine ISTRICE (Hystrix cristata) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...helschwein.jpg.

The region’s forests also host a number of endemic birds such as the Corsican nuthatch (Sitta whiteheadi) which is ecologically adapted and restricted to mature pine trees of the Pinus laricio old-growth forests. Also present are endangered raptors and rare Paleartic birds. Endemic amphibian species are also distributed in certain mountain areas where conifer and broadleaf forests occur, for example Salamandra salamandra corsica SALAMANDRA PEZZATA, Discoglossus montalentii DISCOGLOSSO CORSO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ontalentii.jpg, and Euproctus montanus TRITONE CORSO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...birgsmolch.jpg. Among the reptile species, the most representative species of this ecoregion also characterize similar forest ecosystems of mountain conifer and braodleaf mixed forests from the Southern European Mediterranean countries. These include Algyroïdes fitzingeri ALGIROIDE NANO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...fitzingeri.JPG, Podarcis tiliguerta LUCERTOLA TIRRENICA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...uerta_male.jpg, and Podarcis sicula.

The ecoregion has maintained the majority of its forest cover. Outstanding and extensive old-growth forests have remained until nowadays due to the inaccessibility of these mountain massifs. It is still possible to find very old individuals of laricio pine, natural monuments of about 600 years old, in the Sila Mountains. Human population remains very low and is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas. Nevertheless, grazing and forestry management have considerably modified the forest structure. Clear-cutting practices have lead to even-age stands with very few old trees and a poor plant understorey.

Though deforestation has not been very intensive through the ecoregion, there is a high potential for human impact. Forestry management systems are inadequate and usage is overly intense. A certain amount of socio-political instability affects the ecoregion. The deliberate setting of forest fires is often the response to a lack of acceptance of social and political measures, such as the creation of new protected areas. Mismanagement of pastures and grazing, has also considerably increased the risk of forest fire.

This ecoregion is equivalent to the DMEER (2000) unit of the same name, and is based on the vegetation coverage of Bohn et al. 2000. The ecoregion includes the sub-Mediterranean subcontinental thermophilous bitter oak forests, montane to altimontane beech and mixed beech forests, and oro-Mediterranean pine forests of southern Italy south of Naples. It also includes the sub-Mediterranean and meso-supra-Mediterranean downy oak forests, montane to altimontane beech and mixed beech forests, and oroxerophytic vegetation of northern Sicily.

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*Foreste Temperate di Conifere - Foreste Alpine di Conifere e Miste http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0501

Located in Central Europe, the Alps stretch across the countries of France, Italy, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. As with nearby mountain chains, the Alps are very important as they contribute much of what is left of the original forest cover of central and southern Europe. Some of the last forests in Europe of an almost natural state are found in this ecoregion. Formed during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs, the Alps are home to a high level of biodiversity. Over 4,500 species of plants are found here, 400 of which are endemic. Faunal diversity is also high with 200 bird, 21 amphibian, 15 reptile, and 80 mammal species. While large areas of habitat remain untouched, winter resorts and increasing human populations threaten this ecoregion.

Situated between the Eurosiberian and the Mediterranean biogeographic regions in Europe, the Alps represent an ecotonal mountain system and are divided in three major sectors. The western region is influenced by the mild and humid Atlantic air streams, the central region has a continental climate, and the eastern region has a Mediterranean climate. The mountains cover an area that is about 1200 km long, are distributed among seven different countries, and have a total population of 11.1 million people. It is a relatively young mountain system, whose "step-like" morphology was contoured by the Pleistoceneic glaciation. Alpine bedrocks can be divided into two major groups: calcareous rocks and siliceous material. The climate is primarily cold and temperate, with slight local variations, for example in border "Mediterranean character" areas.

Three relevant ecological patterns can be identified within this mountain system. Deep valleys are rich in a variety of habitats and are important migration corridors. Their potential natural vegetation is deciduous forest of Quercus robur FARNIA, Q. petraea ROVERE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...petraea_06.jpg, Q. pubescens ROVERELLA, and other broad-leaved trees. Sclerophyllous evergreen Mediterranean trees occur in valleys of the above mentioned "Mediterranean" border areas. Mountain forests are composed of mixed beech FAGGIO (Fagus sylvatica) and silver fir ABETE BIANCO (Abies alba), pure spruce ABETE ROSSO (Picea abies) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...te_rosso_1.jpg, or prostrate pine PINO MUGO (Pinus mugo) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ta_tree_03.jpg in the outer regions. Closer to the interior, larch LARICE COMUNE (Larix decidua) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...letschwald.jpg, arolla pine PINO CEMBRO (Pinus cembra) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...px-Zirbe01.jpg, and scotch pine PINO SILVESTRE (Pinus sylvestris) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ylvestris1.jpg replaces P. mugo. Strict alpine zones host many relict species within a belt of alpine grasslands. There are also some major river systems that influence (and are influenced by) the Alpine ecosystems. These include the Rhine, Rhone, Danube, and Po Rivers. The Alps are representative of the high habitat diversity that can be found in mountain systems, as 200 habitat types can be classified throughout the mountain range.

The Alps are an interzonal mountain system (Orobiome), or a "transition area" between Central and Mediterranean Europe, and still have large pristine areas and a high degree of naturalness. About 4500 species of vascular plants, 800 species of mosses, 300 liverworts, 2500 lichens and more than 5000 fungi can be found here. Up to 400 of the vascular species are endemic, particularly among the genera Campanula, Draba, Pedicularis, Phyteuma, Primula, Ranunculus, Saxifraga, and Viola.

About 80 mammal species inhabit the Alps, none of which is "strictly" endemic. Large carnivore populations have been reduced in size or fragmented into small groups. These include Eurasian lynx LINCE EUROPEA (Lynx lynx) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Lynx_lynx2.jpg, wolf LUPO GRIGIO (Canis lupus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Prague_zoo.jpg, and brown bear ORSO BRUNO (Ursus arctos) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Brown_bear.jpg. Large herbivores are widely distributed.

About 200 breeding bird species can be identified, as well as an equal number of migratory species. The Alps are one of the last strongholds for the central European population of the threatened capercaillie GALLO CEDRONE (Tetrao urogallus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Lomvi_2004.jpg, which consists of increasingly isolated populations.

Only one of the 21 total species of amphibian is endemic, Salamandra lanzai SALAMANDRA DI LANZA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...dreone%29.jpeg. Fifteen reptiles species are present. Diversity of invertebrates overcomes that of the vertebrate species by a factor of almost twenty; about one third of invertebrate species are considered threatened.

Wilderness areas can still be found throughout almost all of the Alpine territory.

The foremost conservation concern in the Alps is the excessive fragmentation and loss of habitats and populations. This mainly threatens the permanence of large carnivores (who are naturally returning or are being reintroduced in the Alps). Moreover, Alpine conservation has to do not only with difficulties in protecting a rather large area, but also with the necessity of dealing with an area that is inhabited and exploited by man (through tourism, agriculture, and power plants/industry), as well as where the air and water pollution factor becomes more and more dangerous. Conservation policies must therefore deal with trends such as the decreasing importance of traditional agriculture, the high intensity of tourism, the expansion of urban centres and the development of commuter systems. This means that any conservation action must have many facets, including topics dealing with wilderness, education, and ecological networks.

This ecoregion is equivalent to the DMEER (2000) unit of the same name. It consists of montane to altimontane beech and mixed beech forests, submontane to altimontane spruce and spruce-fir forests, and alpine vegetation in the European Alps. It also includes small portions of submontane acidophilous oak and mixed oak forests, nemoral, sub- and oro- Mediterranean pine forests, and nival and sub-nival vegetation of the high mountains

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*FORESTE TEMPERATE DI LATIFOGLIE E MISTE - FORESTE MISTE DEL BACINO DEL PO http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0432

The Po Basin is located in northern Italy, where it forms a rift between the Italian peninsula and the mainland. Once covered in mixed deciduous oak forest and riparian forest, this periodically flooded basin now retains little of its original vegetation. The most significant biodiversity of the ecoregion is related to lesser-disturbed wetlands. These wetlands are very important breeding, resting, and feeding areas for many bird species. The Po Basin serves as the most important breeding area in Italy for several species of heron. It contains the only nesting site in Italy of pygmy cormorant MARANGONE MINORE(Phalacrocorax pygmaeus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...arowski%29.jpg, and is also home to the globally threatened ferruginous duck MORETTA TABACCATA (Aythya nyroca) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...a_nyroca16.jpg. One of the most industrialised regions of Europe, the Po Basin has a long history of human pressure. Recent degradation of the ecoregion’s remaining flora and fauna is a result of pollution, shrinkage of wetlands, invasive species, and unsustainable hunting of waterfowl.

The 115,000 km2 Po Basin slices an arc between 43-46° north latitude and 7-15° east longitude. It includes northern Italy’s Lombardy, Po River, and Veneto plains, as well as the northern Adriatic coastland. The Po Basin is surrounded by the foothills of the Southern Alps to the west and north, and by the Northern Apennine Mountains to the south. The Po Basin experiences a Mediterranean climate in the south, and a continental climate in the north (Alpine climate). This region is cooler than the Italian Peninsula lowlands in winter, and it can be quite warm during summer, with extremely high air humidity and persistant dense fog. Total annual rainfall ranges from 500 to 1,000 mm.

A few remaining small pockets of natural vegetation help us understand what the Po Basin vegetation would have looked like before very intensive human intervention. Mixed deciduous oak forests of Quercus robur FARNIA, Q. cerris CERRO, Carpinus betulus CARPINO BIANCO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...3%BCck_001.jpg, Ulmus minor OLMO CAMPESTRE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...r_elm%2C_2.jpg, and Fraxinus ornus ORNIELLO once occurred throughout the ecoregion. Riparian forests occupied the periodically flooded valleys of less than 100 m of elevation, and were composed of Fraxinus oxycarpa FRASSINO MERIDIONALE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...tifolia_g1.jpg, Salix alba SALICE BIANCO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...x_alba_004.jpg, Alnus glutinosa ONTANO NERO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...eilingen01.jpg, Ulmus minor OLMO CAMPESTRE, Populus alba PIOPPO BIANCO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...s_alba_001.JPG, P. nigra PIOPPO NERO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._Kissingen.jpg, and Quercus robur FARNIA. Peat bogs and swamps appear frequently within this vegetation type. Conifer and broadleaf mixed forests, located on the moraine hills, are characterized by Pinus sylvestris PINO SILVESTRE, Castanea sativa CASTAGNO EUROPEO, Betula pendula BETULLA BIANCA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...2005-07-01.jpg, and Quercus robur FARNIA. Invasive Robinia pseudoacacia ROBINIA PSEUDOACACIA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...Bia%C5%82a.JPG woodlands are widely spread. Heather BRUGO (Calluna vulgaris) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...rkshire_03.JPG communities are found on outcrops and rocky slopes. Relict Mediterranean sclerophyllous (Quercus ilex) LECCIO and dry conifer PINO DOMESTICO (Pinus pinea) woodlands appear in the coastal sand dunes and flatland in the Po delta, near Ravenna. Brackish lagoons are found in the coastal regions.

The greatest biodiversity value of the Po Basin lies in and around its freshwater ecosystems. These systems have a high level of biodiversity, and support many plant species threatened in Italy, including Leucojum aestivum CAMPANELLE, Nymphaea alba NINFEA COMUNE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ba_ENBLA02.JPG, several Orchidaceae spp., Thelypteris palustris https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...lustris_02.jpg, Salvinia natans ERBA PESCE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...bitus%29_1.jpg, Sagittaria sagittifolia SAGITTARIA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...oliaLeaves.jpg, Utricularia australis ERBA VESCICA DELLE RISAIE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...aaustralis.jpg, Bassia hirsuta , Halocnemum strobilaceum SALICORNIA STROBILACEA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ilaceum_03.jpg, Limonium bellidifolium https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...difolium_2.JPG, and Plantago cornuti.

The ecoregion’s wetlands are very important breeding, resting and feeding areas for many bird species. They serve as the most important heron breeding area in Italy for squacco heron SGARZA CIUFFETTO (Ardeola ralloides) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...er_chevelu.jpg, black-crowned night-heron NITTICORA (Nycticorax nycticorax) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...042011_236.JPG, and little egret GARZETTA (Egretta garzetta) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...2C_India-8.jpg (700 – 1,000 pairs). The Po Basin contains the only nesting site in Italy of pygmy cormorant MARANGONE MINORE (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). The globally threatened ferruginous duck MORETTA TABACCATA(Aythya nyroca) is also a resident of the basin. There are regularly more than 20,000 waterbirds present, including populations of Ciconiiformes, Anatidae, Accipitriformes, Charadriidae, and Sternidae. Several endemic species of fish are present, and the valleys function as nurseries for many species, including some that are rare and/or threatened.

Since Medieval times, the natural vegetation of the Po Basin has been intensively transformed into agricultural land. Currently, 90% of its surface is planted with rice, cereals, grass, fruit trees, and poplar plantations. The region is also one of the most industrialised in Europe, and includes many large towns, industries, and a very dense road network.

The few remaining wilderness areas are scattered small riparian woodlands and wetlands. Natural forests are highly disturbed by the invasion of the exotic black locust ROBINIA PSEUDOACACIA (Robinia pseudoacia). Primary threats to the ecoregion are related to a number of issues. Water, soil, and air pollution is a problem, as is water shortage and the drying up of wetlands due to intense irrigation and urbanisation nearby. Invasive species threaten native flora and fauna. Introduced animal species including nutria NUTRIA (Myocastor coypus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...fray%C3%A9.jpg, stone moroko fish CEBACEK (Pseudorasbora parva) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...version%29.jpg, and wels catfish SILURO D' EUROPA (Siluris glanis) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._glanis_02.jpg are having negative impacts. This problem is compounded by the increasing biomass of the lotus FIOR DI LOTO ASIATICO Nelumbo nucifera https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._nucifera1.jpg, a fast-growing, aggressive exotic plant, which, in addition to hampering the flow of water through river channels, is also suffocating the original native flora. The effort to halt the spread of Nelumbo nucifera is now showing excellent results. The Robinia invasion of forested land is also creating great problems in the remaining natural forests. Poaching and hunting pose a serious threat for Anatidae (waterfowl) species. Another problem is the nearly complete suspension of the traditional cutting and collecting of reeds.

This ecoregion is equivalent to the DMEER unit of the same name. It consists of the mixed oak-hornbeam forests as well as flood-plain vegetation of the Po Basin in Italy.

[GiCa]

*FORESTE TEMPERATE DI LATIFOGLIE E MISTE - FORESTE MONTANE DECIDUE APPENNINICHE

Located at the highest elevations of northern and central Italy’s mountain ranges, the Apennine deciduous montane forests have an outstanding floral diversity with high endemism. They also support a diverse fauna, including the largest Italian populations of brown bear ORSO BRUNO and Italian wolf LUPO DEGLI APPENNINI. While most forest cover has been maintained in these high mountains, inadequate forestry management systems, road construction, and ski resorts have degraded the forest ecosystems. Construction of an underground nuclear power center has considerably reduced water reserves as well as creating a considerable nuclear pollution problem.

The Apennine deciduous montane forests are spread geographically among the highest elevations of the Northern and Central Italian Peninsula. Climatically, the ecoregion is characterized by a perhumid sub-alpine bioclimate (over 1,800 mm of annual rainfall; average annual temperature of about 3-5º C). Winters are harsh and snowfall abundant. From a geological point of view, the ecoregion is dominated by Mesozoic substrates– limestone, dolomite, marl, schist-marl, and sandstone. The Alpine orogeny has been intense, resulting in steep, complex reliefs (Gran Sasso, 2912 m; Mt. Vettore, 2,476 m; Mt. Velino, 2,487 m; La Maiella, 2,793; La Meta, 2,241 m). Karst systems (caves, poljes, dolines, and canyons) are very frequent within the central Apennines Mountain summits.

The high elevations of this ecoregion dictate the following vegetation zones:

1.Extensive beech FAGGIO (Fagus sylvatica) forests. Some relic black pine stands PINO NERO (Pinus nigra var. Italica) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...igra_JPG2A.jpg appear on certain rocky slopes (i.e. La Camosciara, Abruzzo National Park).
2.The mountain summits are characterized by meadows and cushion scrubs, mainly composed of relict populations of the Alpine pine species (Pinus mugo) PINO MUGO, with Juniperus nana GINEPRO NANO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...na_MN_2007.JPG, Sorbus chamaemespilus SORBO ALPINO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...detica_kz1.jpg, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi UVA URSINA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...s-uva-ursi.JPG, and Vaccinium vitis –idaea MIRTILLO ROSSO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...060824_003.jpg as the predominant species that compose the tree canopy. Rocky plant communities support a high number of endemic species.

The ecoregion hosts an outstanding plant diversity, including a significant number of Alpine species –i.e. Gentiana dinarica GENZIANA DINARICA, G. nivalis GENZIANA DELLE NEVI https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...na_nivalis.jpg, Androsace alpina ANDROSACE DEI GHIACCI https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...e_alpina02.jpg, Polygala chamaebuxus POLIGALA FALSO BOSSO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...us_ENBLA07.JPG, Saxifraga oppositifolia SAXIFRAGA OPPOSITIFOLIA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...saxifrage2.jpg, Ranunculus seguieri RANUNCOLO DI SEGUIER https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ri_ENBLA01.JPG, Carlina acaulis CARLINA BIANCA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...is_ENBLA01.jpg. The endemism rate of the main mountain massifs is between 10 and 20 % of the total flora (Abruzzo Mountains, 1,200 species; Gran Sasso and Laga Mountains, 1,500 species; Maiella mountains, 1,800 species). The endemic flora rate increases at higher elevations. Some examples of endemic species are Androsace mathildae, Ranunculus magellensis, Aquilegia magellensis, and Soldanella minima samnitica.

This ecoregion has a significant faunal diversity as well, though the number of endemic species is reduced. More than 40 mammals are present, including important populations of threatened large carnivores, such as the largest Italian population of the highly endangered brown bear ORSO BRUNO (Ursus arctus) and also the Italian wolf (Canis lupus italicus) LUPO DEGLI APPENNINI. Other notable mammals are the Italian roe deer CAPRIOLO (Capreolus capreolus), the endemic Italian Chamois CAMOSCIO D' ABRUZZO (Rupicapra ornata) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...a_ornata_5.JPG, the wild cat GATTO SELVATICO (Felis silvestris), the pine marten MARTORA (Martes martes) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped..._in_Sweden.jpg, and the beech marten FAINA (Martes foina) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ech_Marten.jpg. Otter LONTRA EUROPEA (Lutra lutra) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...nnies_2004.jpg is still present in certain mountain streams and lakes.

The forest ecosystems host a high number of bird species, which in certain mountain massifs exceed 150 species. Examples are honey buzzard FALCO PECCHIAIOLO(Pernis apivorus) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...s_apivorus.jpg, golden eagle AQUILA REALE (Aquila chrysaetos) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...ln%C3%AD_2.jpg, endangered raptors, and rare Paleartic birds.

Endemic amphibia species are distributed all along the Apennine Mountains (i.e. Salamandrina terdigitata SALAMANDRINA DAGLI OCCHIALI https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...salamander.JPG, Triturus italicus TRITONE ITALIANO https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...n_italicus.jpg, Rana italica RANA APPENNINICA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...na_italica.jpg, and Salamandra s. Gigliolii https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped...mandra_001.JPG). The ecoregional mountain massifs host around 14 reptile species also typical of other similar forest ecosystems- mountain conifer and braodleaf mixed forests- from other Southern European Mediterranean countries (i.e. Algyroïdes fitzingeri ALGIROIDE NANO, Podarcis tiliguerta LUCERTOLA TIRRENICA, and Podarcis sicula).

The ecoregion has maintained the majority of its forest cover. Certain outstanding and extensive old-growth forests have persisted due to the inaccessibility of these mountain massifs. Nevertheless, most forests are mid-quality coppice woodlands that have largely recovered as a result of an intense rural abandonment during the first half of the 20th century. Mountain grasslands and degraded slopes are the result of intense human activity that affected the Abbruzzo and Sibillini massifs from medieval times until the 19th century. Grazing and forestry management considerably modified the forest structure (i.e. clear-cutting lead to even-age stands with very few old trees, and a poor plant understorey).

Human population is very low, mainly represented by small villages or shepherd settlements, a high percentage of which is currently abandonment. Mountain tourism is contributing to partially recover the mountain settlements.

The ecoregion has a very good network of protected areas (the national parks of Abruzzo, Maiella, Sibillini, Gran Sasso & Laga Mts), that spreads all along the Central Apennines. This continuum of nature reserves has allowed the recovery of the populations of a number of very threatened mammal species, such as brown bear and wolf, which are currently increasing.

Even if deforestation has not been very intensive through the ecoregion, there is a high potential of human impact, mainly due to inadequate forestry management systems, road construction, and ski resorts. The construction of a tunnel and an underground nuclear power center under the Gran Sasso Mountain has considerably reduced the karstic water reserves– drying up mountain springs, and sharply reducing the valley table napes- as well as provoking a considerable nuclear pollution problem. The construction of a second tunnel, which is foreseen in the area, will certainly increase the threats related to water loss and nuclear power pollution. Land use conflicts, such as nature protection, hunting, grazing, and also tourism development– mainly urban development around mountain ski resorts- have also considerably increased the risk of degradation of the ecoregion’s ecosystems.

This ecoregion is equivalent to the DMEER (2000) unit of the same name. It is also equivalent to Bohn et al.’s (2000) montane to altimontane beech and mixed beech forests in the Italian peninsula.