Kamal900
02-06-2015, 02:04 PM
Am J Hum Genet. 2003 Apr; 72(4): 1058–1064. Published online 2003 Mar 10.
This study is really old, and i would greatly appreciate anyone who can send me a new study regarding the SSA haplogroups of the near eastern Arabs.
Southern Arabs gained control of the Red Sea trade routes in the 12th century b.c., and the first kingdom, Saba, arose in Yemen in ∼800 b.c. As a result, Eritrea and Ethiopia were gradually incorporated into the area of Arab influence. These contacts crystallized in the formation of the Ethio-Sabean state of Daamat on the Tigrean plateau in ∼600 b.c. The archaeological evidence suggests that this is likely to have been the result of small-scale colonization by several Arabian groups (including Sabeans) and acculturation of the indigenous population (Fattovich 1997). This was succeeded, following the decline of Saba and Daamat and several centuries of isolation, by the kingdom of Aksum in ∼a.d. 100, which formed as part of the Roman exchange network extending from Egypt as far as India, trading via the Red Sea port of Adulis. Aksum survived for 800 years and occupied southern Arabia for part of this period. Utilitarian Aksumite pottery has been found in large quantities in deposits from the 5th and 6th centuries in the Yemen Hadramawt, suggesting that there may have been substantial immigration during that period. From the 7th century onward, with the rise of Islam, Muslim communities became established along the coast of Eritrea and Somalia, spreading inland from the late 1st millennium onward (Fattovich 1997). Concomitantly, the Arab slave trade, operating from pre-Islamic times but at its height between a.d. 650 and 1900, carried millions of men and women from the Nile Valley, the Horn of Africa, and the eastern African coast across the Red Sea to Arabia and many more millions across the Sahara (Segal 2001).
mtDNA:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB1/?report=previmg
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB1/
Y-DNA:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB2/?report=previmg
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB2/
Human mtDNA and Y-chromosome variation was interpreted within the following phylogeographic framework. Human mtDNA falls into clades L1a–f, L2, L3b, L3d, and L3e, and a paraphyletic cluster L3*, which characterize sub-Saharan Africans (Chen et al. 1995; Watson et al. 1997; Alves-Silva et al. 2000; Salas et al. 2002); and two further clades within L3, namely N and M, which are largely pan-Eurasian and East/South Asian, respectively (Torroni et al. 1994; Kivisild et al. 1999; Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Richards and Macaulay 2000, 2001; Richards et al. 2000).
For convenience, we refer to African L3 lineages (which do not form a clade) as “L3A” (Rando et al. 1998) and to the entire set of sub-Saharan haplogroups as “L1–L3A.”
Among these is the African haplogroup U6, which is of ancient Eurasian ancestry (since haplogroup U probably evolved in the Near East), but diverged in North Africa over the past 20,000–40,000 years and can therefore be regarded as characteristic of indigenous North Africans (Rando et al. 1998; Macaulay et al. 1999). Its presence in the Near East, therefore, implies gene flow from North Africa.
Two haplogroups, (pre-HV)1 and M1, have a distribution that spans the Red Sea. Haplogroup (pre-HV)1 occurs widely throughout the Near East, reaching highest frequency in Arabia, but is also common in Ethiopia and Somalia (Watson et al. 1997; Richards et al. 2000). Given its close phylogenetic relationship with other Eurasian clusters, this haplogroup probably originated in the Near East and spread later into eastern Africa. Haplogroup M1, however, has been assigned an African origin, despite the facts that (i) all other basal branches of haplogroup M are restricted to South Asia, East Asia, and Australasia, and (ii) the diversity of M in Asia is greater than in Africa (Quintana-Murci et al. 1999). It is restricted to the Near East and north and eastern Africa, concentrated in Somalia and Ethiopia (Watson et al. 1997). It is therefore unclear whether any particular M1 sequence type in the Near East arrived recently from Africa; an Asian origin with back-migration to Africa is possible.
The distribution of mtDNA haplogroups in the Near East and Africa is shown in table 1. Haplogroups L1–L3A have so far been found at highest frequencies in Central Africans and southern African Khoisan speakers, where they comprise ∼100% of extant lineages. For example, the sampled Pygmies include only L1 and L2 lineages. L1–L3A make up 89% of mtDNAs in West Africa, >90% in southern East Africa, ∼70% in Somalia, and ∼55% in Ethiopia.
The reason for the lower frequency of haplogroups L1–L3A in Ethiopia is the presence both of haplogroups (pre-HV)1 and M1 (at high frequencies) and of the west Eurasian haplogroups T, J, U, and HV, which are indicative of substantial gene flow from the Near East.
West Eurasian mtDNAs are elsewhere very rare in sub-Saharan Africa, the main previously discovered examples having entered Nubia from Egypt (Krings et al. 1999) and into the western Sahara from northwest Africa (Rando et al. 1998). In the case of Ethiopia, the west Eurasian types mostly match types in Arabia, with only a couple of exceptions of rare derived types not previously seen elsewhere. Haplogroups (pre-HV)1 and M1 are found primarily both in eastern Africa and the Near East.
Haplogroups L1–L3A in the Near East reach their highest frequency in the Yemen Hadramawt (∼35%). Other Arab populations—Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, and Bedouin—have ∼10%–15% of lineages of sub-Saharan African origin. These types are rarely shared between different Arab populations. By contrast, non-Arab Near Eastern populations—Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Azeris, and Georgians—have few or no such lineages, suggesting that gene flow from Africa has been specifically into Arab populations.
We compared the frequency of haplogroups L1–L3A in Jewish communities from the Near East with that in non-Jewish communities residing historically in the same area (table 1). Near Eastern Jewish groups almost entirely lack haplogroups L1–L3A (as, indeed, do Ashkenazi Jews [Thomas et al. 2002]). The only exception is in Jews from Yemen, but, even here, these lineages amount only to a quarter of their frequency in the non-Jewish sample from the Hadramawt. (L1 and L2 types are completely absent.)
By contrast, throughout the Near East, haplogroup A is virtually absent, for example, in Bedouin, Palestinians, and Syrians, as well as in Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Azeris, and Georgians and several Jewish groups (table 2). Haplogroup E is present in both Arab and Jewish populations throughout the Near East, as well as at high frequencies throughout most of Africa (Scozzari et al. 1999, 2001; Underhill et al. 2000; Cruciani et al. 2002).
The mtDNAs of sub-Saharan origin that are present in Near Eastern populations show a striking phylogeographic pattern. They are virtually restricted to Arab populations, occurring at ∼35% in the Yemen Hadramawt and ∼10%–15% in other Arab populations. They are absent or almost so from Turks, Armenians, Azeris, Georgians, and Near Eastern Jews and present at lower levels in Turkish Kurds. In Europe, they are detected at appreciable levels only in regions which experienced Arab rule during the medieval period.
In summary, these results are consistent with mainly female migration from eastern Africa into Arab communities within the last few thousand years. There have been many opportunities for such migrations between eastern Africa and southern Arabia during this period. However, the most likely explanation for the presence of predominantly female lineages of African origin in other parts of the Arab world is that these may trace back to women brought from Africa as part of the Arab slave trade, assimilated into the Arabian population as a result of miscegenation and manumission. Indeed, unlike the situation in the Americas, there are no substantial communities of African descent in the Near East today. This is thought to be because relatively few men—mainly employed in manual labor and military service or castrated and employed as eunuchs—left descendants. Women, by contrast, were imported specifically for the sexual gratification of élite males and for their reproductive potential. The practice of manumission meant that their offspring were born free. Female slaves were, therefore, readily integrated into Islamic society (Lewis 1992; Segal 2001).
More --> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/
This study is really old, and i would greatly appreciate anyone who can send me a new study regarding the SSA haplogroups of the near eastern Arabs.
Southern Arabs gained control of the Red Sea trade routes in the 12th century b.c., and the first kingdom, Saba, arose in Yemen in ∼800 b.c. As a result, Eritrea and Ethiopia were gradually incorporated into the area of Arab influence. These contacts crystallized in the formation of the Ethio-Sabean state of Daamat on the Tigrean plateau in ∼600 b.c. The archaeological evidence suggests that this is likely to have been the result of small-scale colonization by several Arabian groups (including Sabeans) and acculturation of the indigenous population (Fattovich 1997). This was succeeded, following the decline of Saba and Daamat and several centuries of isolation, by the kingdom of Aksum in ∼a.d. 100, which formed as part of the Roman exchange network extending from Egypt as far as India, trading via the Red Sea port of Adulis. Aksum survived for 800 years and occupied southern Arabia for part of this period. Utilitarian Aksumite pottery has been found in large quantities in deposits from the 5th and 6th centuries in the Yemen Hadramawt, suggesting that there may have been substantial immigration during that period. From the 7th century onward, with the rise of Islam, Muslim communities became established along the coast of Eritrea and Somalia, spreading inland from the late 1st millennium onward (Fattovich 1997). Concomitantly, the Arab slave trade, operating from pre-Islamic times but at its height between a.d. 650 and 1900, carried millions of men and women from the Nile Valley, the Horn of Africa, and the eastern African coast across the Red Sea to Arabia and many more millions across the Sahara (Segal 2001).
mtDNA:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB1/?report=previmg
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB1/
Y-DNA:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB2/?report=previmg
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/table/TB2/
Human mtDNA and Y-chromosome variation was interpreted within the following phylogeographic framework. Human mtDNA falls into clades L1a–f, L2, L3b, L3d, and L3e, and a paraphyletic cluster L3*, which characterize sub-Saharan Africans (Chen et al. 1995; Watson et al. 1997; Alves-Silva et al. 2000; Salas et al. 2002); and two further clades within L3, namely N and M, which are largely pan-Eurasian and East/South Asian, respectively (Torroni et al. 1994; Kivisild et al. 1999; Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Richards and Macaulay 2000, 2001; Richards et al. 2000).
For convenience, we refer to African L3 lineages (which do not form a clade) as “L3A” (Rando et al. 1998) and to the entire set of sub-Saharan haplogroups as “L1–L3A.”
Among these is the African haplogroup U6, which is of ancient Eurasian ancestry (since haplogroup U probably evolved in the Near East), but diverged in North Africa over the past 20,000–40,000 years and can therefore be regarded as characteristic of indigenous North Africans (Rando et al. 1998; Macaulay et al. 1999). Its presence in the Near East, therefore, implies gene flow from North Africa.
Two haplogroups, (pre-HV)1 and M1, have a distribution that spans the Red Sea. Haplogroup (pre-HV)1 occurs widely throughout the Near East, reaching highest frequency in Arabia, but is also common in Ethiopia and Somalia (Watson et al. 1997; Richards et al. 2000). Given its close phylogenetic relationship with other Eurasian clusters, this haplogroup probably originated in the Near East and spread later into eastern Africa. Haplogroup M1, however, has been assigned an African origin, despite the facts that (i) all other basal branches of haplogroup M are restricted to South Asia, East Asia, and Australasia, and (ii) the diversity of M in Asia is greater than in Africa (Quintana-Murci et al. 1999). It is restricted to the Near East and north and eastern Africa, concentrated in Somalia and Ethiopia (Watson et al. 1997). It is therefore unclear whether any particular M1 sequence type in the Near East arrived recently from Africa; an Asian origin with back-migration to Africa is possible.
The distribution of mtDNA haplogroups in the Near East and Africa is shown in table 1. Haplogroups L1–L3A have so far been found at highest frequencies in Central Africans and southern African Khoisan speakers, where they comprise ∼100% of extant lineages. For example, the sampled Pygmies include only L1 and L2 lineages. L1–L3A make up 89% of mtDNAs in West Africa, >90% in southern East Africa, ∼70% in Somalia, and ∼55% in Ethiopia.
The reason for the lower frequency of haplogroups L1–L3A in Ethiopia is the presence both of haplogroups (pre-HV)1 and M1 (at high frequencies) and of the west Eurasian haplogroups T, J, U, and HV, which are indicative of substantial gene flow from the Near East.
West Eurasian mtDNAs are elsewhere very rare in sub-Saharan Africa, the main previously discovered examples having entered Nubia from Egypt (Krings et al. 1999) and into the western Sahara from northwest Africa (Rando et al. 1998). In the case of Ethiopia, the west Eurasian types mostly match types in Arabia, with only a couple of exceptions of rare derived types not previously seen elsewhere. Haplogroups (pre-HV)1 and M1 are found primarily both in eastern Africa and the Near East.
Haplogroups L1–L3A in the Near East reach their highest frequency in the Yemen Hadramawt (∼35%). Other Arab populations—Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, and Bedouin—have ∼10%–15% of lineages of sub-Saharan African origin. These types are rarely shared between different Arab populations. By contrast, non-Arab Near Eastern populations—Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Azeris, and Georgians—have few or no such lineages, suggesting that gene flow from Africa has been specifically into Arab populations.
We compared the frequency of haplogroups L1–L3A in Jewish communities from the Near East with that in non-Jewish communities residing historically in the same area (table 1). Near Eastern Jewish groups almost entirely lack haplogroups L1–L3A (as, indeed, do Ashkenazi Jews [Thomas et al. 2002]). The only exception is in Jews from Yemen, but, even here, these lineages amount only to a quarter of their frequency in the non-Jewish sample from the Hadramawt. (L1 and L2 types are completely absent.)
By contrast, throughout the Near East, haplogroup A is virtually absent, for example, in Bedouin, Palestinians, and Syrians, as well as in Turks, Kurds, Armenians, Azeris, and Georgians and several Jewish groups (table 2). Haplogroup E is present in both Arab and Jewish populations throughout the Near East, as well as at high frequencies throughout most of Africa (Scozzari et al. 1999, 2001; Underhill et al. 2000; Cruciani et al. 2002).
The mtDNAs of sub-Saharan origin that are present in Near Eastern populations show a striking phylogeographic pattern. They are virtually restricted to Arab populations, occurring at ∼35% in the Yemen Hadramawt and ∼10%–15% in other Arab populations. They are absent or almost so from Turks, Armenians, Azeris, Georgians, and Near Eastern Jews and present at lower levels in Turkish Kurds. In Europe, they are detected at appreciable levels only in regions which experienced Arab rule during the medieval period.
In summary, these results are consistent with mainly female migration from eastern Africa into Arab communities within the last few thousand years. There have been many opportunities for such migrations between eastern Africa and southern Arabia during this period. However, the most likely explanation for the presence of predominantly female lineages of African origin in other parts of the Arab world is that these may trace back to women brought from Africa as part of the Arab slave trade, assimilated into the Arabian population as a result of miscegenation and manumission. Indeed, unlike the situation in the Americas, there are no substantial communities of African descent in the Near East today. This is thought to be because relatively few men—mainly employed in manual labor and military service or castrated and employed as eunuchs—left descendants. Women, by contrast, were imported specifically for the sexual gratification of élite males and for their reproductive potential. The practice of manumission meant that their offspring were born free. Female slaves were, therefore, readily integrated into Islamic society (Lewis 1992; Segal 2001).
More --> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180338/