Ancient Italic peoples: Samnites

[Ianus]

The Samnites or Sabelli were an ancient Italic people aside in the Sannio, corresponding to the current territories of northern Campania, Puglia high, much of the Molise (except the stretch frentano), the low and high Abruzzo Lucania. Set of tribes gathered in the Samnite League, extended during the first half of the first millennium BC its area of influence, until you get to understand their southern neighbors, Oscans, who were linguistically very similar. In the fourth century BC came into contact with the Roman Republic, then power on the rise. Between 343 and 290 BC the three Samnite Wars sanctioned the supremacy of the Romans, cracked by defections and rebellions in the following centuries, but never questioned. The Samnites were then completely Romanized, in a long process that ended only in the early centuries of the first millennium AD

Ethnonim

The Samnites defined Safinim (from the root Italic Sab- / SAF also present in the Sabine and Sabelli, for example) its national territory, and defining themselves with the name of Safineis (in ancient greek Σαφινείς). The different names come to us through the Latin language are explained by the fact that in the archaic Latin / f / intervocalic was not present, so Safinim became assimilated to Samnium, from which the Romans derived the toponymic Samnites to designate the inhabitants.



The Sabines who had long fought against the Umbrians their neighbors, they can not prevail, they decided to sacrifice those who were born in that year, if they had given victory over the Umbrians. This happened, so kept the vote, but then having been oppressed by famine, to get rid of this disaster decided to dedicate again to the gods they begat, thinking of finding an abundance lost. And these, dedicated to the god Mars, which were reached adulthood were sent by their parents to seek another dwelling .

According to the legend , and then, the tribe Sabellic Pentri, led by the "ox", would stop north of the river Tifernus (at today's Matese), and founded the city of Bovianum which was, according to the Roman historian Livy [1], the capital of Sannio. Bovianum remembered annually with the ver sacrum the arrival of the tribe pentrica led by ox that gives the city its name. A second tribe, that of Irpini led by "wolf" (in Osco hirpus) would stop in the valleys of the Heat and Saturday; a third, led by the "woodpecker" (picus) would stop south of the country said so Terminio Picentini; a fourth, the Caudini, led by the "wild boar" (aber, whence Abella, today Avella), you would be allocated between the mountains of feverfew and Taburno and even into Conca avellana.

It is very likely that would not be called a real animal, but that the people marched under a banner on which the animal was depicted. In any case, it is clear that the real reason to celebrate the Ver Sacrum was overpopulation.

The Samnite League


The Samnite League was a confederation between the late fourth and early third century BC, brought together the main Samnite tribes to meet the threat of the Romans brought their expansionism.
Permanent members of the League were the tribe: Caudini, Irpini Pentri and Carricini. The moment of maximum expansion also Frentani they were full members.
The set of peoples Sunnis, the Touto, met so in this League, which was a governmental entity, the military and even religious, which united all the more diverse populations in order to withstand the pressure Roman. At the head of the League had placed a "council" led by a magistrate, the meddix tuticus, which had as its goal to decide on the various strategies to be adopted in case of war.



Samnites Wars

The territory occupied by the confederation Sunni expanded gradually, but come to touch the Lower Lazio and Naples area Samnites had to deal with the Romans, with whom they entered into in the first place a pact of friendship in 354 BC. Eleven years later, in 343 BC, the Etruscan town of Capua was occupied by the Samnites and asked for help to the Roman Senate, which accepted the plea. The first Samnite war was brief and the Romans prevailed, despite some initial difficulties, thanks to the Battle of Suessula (341 BC) The internal social tensions and concern about the possible infidelity other Italic peoples subjugated just led the Senate, however, to conclude a treaty very mild peace with the Samnites .
The Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), where the Samnites harshly imposed on the Romans, in a painting Roman
Casus belli of the second Samnite war was the foundation of the Roman colony of Fregellae, in Samnite territory; the conflict broke out in 326 BC and Samnites could count on the support of other nations recently submitted to the Romans and that he tolerated poorly the yoke. Initially the war was favorable to the Samnites: led by Gaius Pontius, humiliated the Romans in Caudine Forks (321 BC), near Caudium, which imposed a truce in the Senate. Hostilities resumed in 316 BC and Samnites were again the better initially, expanding towards Lazio thanks to the support of the League Ernica; Rome, however, was able to establish itself near Maleventum (modern Benevento), thanks to the troops led by the legions of Papirius Cursor and Bibulco, and then to win the League and finally, in the battle of Bovianum (305 BC), on the same Samnites, who the following year accepted a peace treaty whose terms are modeled formally the previous one, but in fact opened the way for a greater presence in the Roman Sannio .

The final submission of the Samnites in Rome was sanctioned by the third Samnite War (298-290 BC). Concerned Roman expansionism, the Samnites gathered in a new coalition Etruscans and Umbrians, but the Romans were in charge with the battle of Sentino (295 BC); remained isolated, suffered defeat in the final battle of Aquilonia of 293 BC The Samnites were seen confined to a narrow territory and were never able to seriously question the Roman hegemony, although retained some degree of autonomy and identity

The policy conducted by Rome over the Samnites after 290 BC was harsh: despite formal observance of their autonomy, substantially the Samnites were forcibly integrated into the system Capitoline also through mass deportations and destruction of entire villages [citation needed]. However this was done very slowly, because they always kept a fair hostility to the Roman rule and lost no opportunity to show their spirit of revolt against the oppressors: they supported the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC) and the advance of Hannibal in Italy (217-214 BC).

The Sunnis also participated in the revolt of the Italic peoples in the Social War of 90-88 BC and some Sunni leaders, Gaius Papio Mutilated and Mario Egnazio, with tenacity and skill led coalition forces against Rome. In the end the rebels were defeated by the Romans and Lucius Cornelius Sulla devastated with his army territory sannitico . The Samnites also participated in the Roman civil war between Sulla and Marian dell'83-82 BC alongside the democratic faction against the aristocracy led by Cornelius Sulla; a large Sunni army, led by the valiant leader Ponzio Telesino, boldly marched on Rome coming to the gates of the city; Sulla, who rushed to the rescue of the capital with his army, he managed, after a dramatic battle, to destroy the army in the battle of the Sunni Porta Collina, Ponzio Telesino fell on the field .

The Samnites resurfaced on the political scene even during the Third Servile War (73-71 BC) and the Conspiracy of Catiline (62 BC).

Only after a few centuries it obtained a lasting peace since the Romans, to ensure the stability of the territories subject as well as a safety valve against further rebellions, conceded slowly citizenship to all Italian populations. With time, the Samnites were integrated also in the Roman ruling class: one of the most famous was, according to some traditions [citation], Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea in the days of Christ

Society

In pre-Roman Sannio there were few urban centers of a certain size. That sannitica was a rural society and cities were mainly constituted by shepherds' huts. Aesernia, Aeclanum, Allifae, Cities like Cubulteria, Maleventum, Saepinum, Telesia, Trebula Balliensis and a few other centers seems to have been the city of some importance in the days when the Sannio was independent, but their extent was limited. That company, without a central government organized and organized in rural communities, must have had characteristics servile and feudal. The lower classes depended economically by aristocrats, but it seems that slavery itself was very extensive: the Sunni average was not a slave, but it is certain that his was a life of work and sacrifice, employed by the local lord.

Because of the difficult climate and the spread of pastoralism Samnites used wool garments. As for accessories, despite the peoples of southern generally much loved jewelry, Samnites not being rich could afford a few: were found mostly earrings and hairpins, and most of all fibulae or knives who used to attack belts.

The Samnites were monogamous, and divorce allowed. According to Horace's role was very important Sunni wife, took care of the house and rearing and education of children.

Very popular were the gladiatorial combat: it was probably by the Samnites that this bloody pastime was imported to Rome. For a long time, in fact, the only kind of gladiator known in Rome was known as Sunni. Originally the fighting took place only at funerals

Economy

The economy sannitica was neither complex nor diversified. Lacked the raw materials to work with and, in an area devoid of coastline, the Samnites had virtually no activities connected with the sea: they were a nation of farmers and ranchers in part, and their life was hard and frugal. In Sannio lacked fertile valleys or extended, but in the most fertile, where cultivation was possible, it was practiced extensively, especially in Western Sannio. Forests also had to play an important role in the economy: Molise and Campania eastern fact boast excellent timber.

In some areas, however, cattle ranching was prevalent on agriculture, especially in the lands of Carecini and Pentri. Were bred cattle, horses and, presumably, donkeys, mules, poultry, goats and pigs. But for the Samnites the most important animals were sheep, for the production of milk and dairy products, as well as for wool. During the summer you were using pastures located on high ground, during the winter the Samnites traveling along with their cattle long distances to grazing areas in the plains: is the known practice of transhumance. Puglia was the main target, and the sheep tracks were the ways of connection used in the transhumance, still partly traceable.

The local industry was not to be well developed. Most of the cloth was woven in the house, and consisted mostly of wool woven by women. Even metalworking and other crafts were practiced, albeit on a relatively small scale. Was also produced some amount of ceramics, most objects of simple mix and mediocre quality.

Before the war, social states of Sannio not coined nor uttered coins, although should be perfectly aware of the existence of money and, perhaps, they used the currencies of neighboring countries. In fact some cities sannite emitted currency, but this happened only when were no longer officially part of Sannio.

Trade were few and limited in scope. The import was far from extensive, and the few products of foreign origin were found not far from certain, but from the neighboring areas of Italy, as the Apulia and Taranto

Government



The United tribal Sunnis were born from the development of peasant societies. The city-state as a unit of government did not exist: the political and administrative units was not the municipium but the touto, Osco term to define the community. The touto was the unit that had corporative character and was obviously broader than normal civitas. The concept of a city-state with its territory included in the urban center was alien to the Samnites. They conceived rather a territorial area in which the presence of urban areas was accidental, although these could be used as centers where took place the affairs of the tribe.

The political unity under the tribe was the ancient institution of the Italic pagus. Each touto included several pages. The pagus was an administrative subunit, the smallest existing among the Italic peoples, and it was not a city, but a district of variable extension that could in turn include, in the flat areas, one or more settlements, villages surrounded by walls but not palisades, or, in the mountainous areas, small towns surrounded by walls. The pagus was a rural district semi-detached, that dealt with social issues, agricultural and especially religious: it is also likely that it happen through military recruitment.

A touto born when a certain number of pages joined in close association, thus being able to immediately count on absolute loyalty of all its members. Presumably, each of the four tribes sannite (Carecini, Caudini, Irpini and Pentri) was a touto.

Each touto was a republic, not a kingdom. The local aristocracies monopolized political power for only the wealthiest citizens could afford to hold public office. The ruling class retained its power through the office of meddix, Osco generic term meaning similar to Latin magistratus. The meddix supreme head of state, was called meddix tuticus, who enjoyed full authority and unlimited in its touto. In addition to overseeing the administration of the law he was the military leader of the state and played a certain role, originally certainly the main one, the official religion. How eponymous magistrate, his office was annual, but it seems that it could be re-elected for more consecutive times. In the exercise of the supreme power meddix tuticus was apparently the equivalent of the Roman consul. Unlike the latter, however, seems to have a colleague with the same authority (in Rome the consuls elected were two). Besides this chief magistrate, there were minor officials: It is possible that each of the pages that constituted a touto had his meddix minor, which would have had a subordinate position compared to meddix tuticus.

Presumably, the Samnites elected their magistrates. Sunni tribes each had to have both a board is an assembly (called kombennio or komparakio) who met regularly in certain places, convened and chaired the meddix tuticus. The constitution of a state sannita was then "mixed": the meddix tuticus represented the monarchical element, the board and the aristocratic kombennio komparakio or the democratic.

Sannitica a social institution, which was to perform functions both governmental and military, was the Verehia Verreia or that, at the end of the fifth century BC, was recognized in a youth organization, similar to the Roman juventus. Young people were the Guardians of the Gate, as in Osco the term "real" is the Latin word "door". This institution was used to train young Sunnis to military life, the equestrian arts and firearms. With the passage of time this institution is identified with a kind of "venture company" almost to locate a group of participants who, from an early age, they together climbed all the steps of the military training so as to give rise to a sort of armed handpiece well distinguibie by others. With the Romanization of the Sannio "Verehia" lost all military connotation that had distinct, finishing by identifying a group of people who looked after the welfare of his people and the city in which they lived

Military



Originally, the army of the Samnites was formed by groups of men, each headed by a leader who requested and obtained a commitment of fidelity by individual warriors, setting similar to that of the ancient Celts and Germans as well as that of ancient Rome. They were probably the Samnite wars to make it clear both to the Romans that the Samnites that this system was inadequate. It is certain that at the time of the third Samnite war, if not before, the Samnites had fully developed and organized their tribal armies, that they should not be very different by the Roman army, so much so that Livio did not hesitate to speak of "legions" sannite. A Samnite army was organized into cohorts - according Livio composed of 400 men - and fought in the presentation; officers included the military tribunes. The cavalry Sunni enjoyed an excellent reputation. Like so many people, then and still today, they had in their army a number of fighters who formed an elite group of warriors. It was the Legio Linteata which Livy describes as a sort of equivalent of the sacred Theban Legion, dressed in white and placed on the right wing: after a particularly sacred ceremony, became a caste of warriors devoted to the ultimate sacrifice in order to defend its own people.

The successes of the Samnites on mountainous terrain confirm how they used an order of battle flexible and open, rather than deploy a phalanx tightened. A tradition, supported by the fragment in greek said Ineditum Vaticanum, wants the Samnites would use both the javelin (pilum) is the long striped shield (scutum) and that the Romans learned from them the use of such weapons, even if it is more likely that the Romans adopted the tactics and manipulating these weapons simultaneously to the Samnites, the early fourth century.

Language

The Samnites spoke Oscan, an Indo-European language group Osco-Umbrian spread among numerous Italic peoples related to them, like their southern neighbors Osci, absorbed by the Samnites in the fifth century BC Among graffiti found in archaeological excavations of Pompeii were found inscriptions in Osco, then still alive in the first century BC.

The Oscan language is one of the most attested among Osco-Umbrian, witnessed by more than 250 inscriptions in Greek, Etruscan and Latin adapted. Considered the most conservative among the languages Osco-Umbrian, Oscan was also discussed, in dialects more or less differentiated from related peoples Marrucini, Peligni, Osci and Sabini.

A great testament to the vitality of the Oscan language consists of fabulae Atella, who acquired and retained great popularity in Rome. The performers wore masks, the characters were rude and dialogue punctuated with riddles salacious. In Rome, were staged by young amateurs, not professional actors, and for many years were constituted simply by impromptu improvisations.

The Samnites began using handwriting for the Atella but not for official purposes, such as exchanges and treaties with the Romans. In the fourth century BC the percentage of Samnites able to read and write was to be very low, probably limited to a few priests and scribes. One major development took place in the third century BC The Romans began to carve inscriptions on tombstones and to show greater interest in writing, which began to make more use also the Samnites, especially for religious purposes, as shown by the bar of Agnone, a sacred text. The ability to read and write it went slowly spreading during the second and first centuries BC, while the consolidation of Roman supremacy on Italy and to be born in Rome of interest in the literary production. Around the first century BC the ability to read and write was to be commonly held not only in Rome but also with the peoples sabelli. But at that time the supremacy of Latin, adopted after the Social War as an official language of mainland Italy, had established itself irreversi.

Art and Architecture

The earliest forms of art traceable in Sannio are those of a culture of the Iron Age, in the seventh century still early in that area of Italy. Local products, ceramics dough, ornaments and weapons of bronze and iron, continued to be manufactured without major changes in the next two centuries, during which the Samnites were consolidating their tribal states. Characteristic of this period is the fact that there was actually assimilated any significant influence from the outside. From 400 BC on the assimilation of Greek influence becomes more and more evident. Throughout Italy sabella finds the same phenomenon predominant models Greeks lose their essential qualities to buy an individuality rustic, rugged and expressive typically Italic obvious feature in the objects of terracotta, stone and bronze. There are few examples of figurative art of Sannio attributable to the period before the end of the fifth century; at that time is traced head of terracotta from Triflisco preserved in the museum of Santa Maria Capua Vetere, garlanded head of a man with a beard, life-size. The terracotta continued to be used for very long in the following centuries.


Very few are the stone sculptures from the Sannio that we have been made. The bronze objects are more numerous, especially statues of warriors, representatives usually Mamerte or the god Hercules.

As for painting, Sannio offers nothing, but the tomb paintings of the neighboring peoples sabelli are the most significant artistic events among peoples of Oscan: their scenes shed light on the life and customs sannitico. The themes are largely Greek, Etruscan technique. It seems that the Samnites ignore the art of painting the pots.

Despite repeated destruction perpetrated by the Romans and others after them, remains of architecture sannita still exist. The polygonal fortifications erected on top of the mountains are the oldest monuments of note of Sannio, built in the style known as "Cyclopean". Massi crude or roughly machined, in limestone, of moderate size, were stacked without mortar, held together by their own weight. Despite their limitations, these walls served as prototypes for polygonal perhaps of a more perfected that mark the progress of the Roman expansion.

Little can be said of public buildings Sunnis, not being survived any construction that can be identified with certainty as the seat of a council or another government agency Sunni. Presumably their buildings were constructed with simple local materials, and not with expensive imported materials, and that they had not monumental characteristics. Probably the most important public buildings were the temples and theaters, of which some specimens were saved.

The houses of the Samnites inevitably reflected their poverty: the word that meant osca house was triibon (cfr. Latin trabem, "beam"), and this suggests that the houses of the Samnites were wooden, as is normal in a peasant society. Most of the population was living in dwellings simple, primitive, presumably composed of a single room. Many of them were simply temporary shelters, adapted to the needs of the shepherds who moved with their flocks.

Religion

Religion played an important role in the life of the Samnites. For them, the existence and activities as a whole were connected with the activity of God and they were the result. In the religion of the Samnites intertwined various strands. Greek and Etruscan elements combine with animism, fetishism and magic and therefore, anthropomorphism and personification of abstractions and theriomorphism (the animal-guide of Ver Sacrum).

Characteristic of religion is Sunni polilatria: Samnites, like other Italic peoples, they used the same place for worship simultaneously of two or more. These gods were also highly specialized. The Samnites, agricultural people, they conceived their world as populated by mysterious powers and spirits that inspired awe and with whom it was necessary to establish good relations. These numina were not necessarily devoid of gender and family relations, although the conception of some of them was considerably vague. You probably were not imagined in human form, and their name, number and sex are sometimes uncertain. Of these spirits, both benign and malicious, you had to win the favor and avoid the enmity. In the house it was necessary to maintain the goodwill of the forces inherent in crucial areas such as the door, the stove and the pantry; in the fields, one of the spirits of the borders, the top, caves, forests, streams, springs and burial sites.

Precious document as regards the elements of the Sunni religion is the Tabula Agnonensis, a bronze tablet, dating back to 250 BC about, perfectly preserved, which measures 27x15 inches and is in the British Museum. Both sides bear inscriptions in Osco. 17 deities are mentioned here, if you count the two aspects of Jupiter, all connected with agriculture, whose altars were hortus, one of those sacred groves very common in Italy in archaic. Listed below are the deities named on the tablet:

Kerres - Ceres (the Greek goddess Demeter), the deity which was dedicated the sacred area;
Vezkei - It does not seem possible to derive a name some of this dative Oscan;
Evklui Patereí - Mercury, in its aspect of Psychopompos;
Futreí Kerriiai - Persephone, daughter of Ceres;
Anter Stataí - Stata Mater, the midwife who is "in the middle" during childbirth;
Ammaí Kerriiai - Maia, Italic goddess of spring;
Diumpaís Kerríiaís - The Lilies of the sources;
Liganakdíkei entered - Divinity linked to vegetation and fruits;
Anafríss Kerríiuís - The Lilies of the rains;
Maatúís Kerríiúís - Italic goddess whose functions were related to childbirth and lactation, as well as a dispenser of dew for crops;
Diúveí Verehasiúí - Jupiter Virgator, who presided over the alternation of the seasons;
Diúveí Regatureí - Jupiter Pluvio;
Hereklúí Kerríiuí - Hercules;
Patanaí Piístíaí - Goddess of winemaking, and he did open the ears for threshing;
Deívaí Genetaí - Mana Geneta;
Pernai Kerriiai - Pales, the goddess of the shepherds; maybe it was the goddess of childbirth happy.
Fluusai - Flora, protectress of the shoots



A god to which the Samnites were particularly devoted was Mars, the name Mamerte Sunni. It is not clear if these were primarily a god of war or agriculture. It was connected with the spring and fertility and protected fields, crop and livestock, however, was also the god of youth and as such was endowed with strength and skill in combat: it was perhaps due to the Samnites that its image in Italy warrior came to predominate.

Other deities care to the Samnites were Diana, whose characteristics are well identified martial virtues Samnite warriors; the goddess of the Earth; Angitia, goddess of healing and safety. From tablet Agnone is clear that religion Sunni included, in addition to the original Italic god, also of the Greeks: Hercules, Castor and Pollux, the nymphs, Apollo, Hermes and Dionysus.

Towards the late second century BC the application of Greek mythology to the Italic caused a metamorphosis of the Sunni concept of divinity. Also, at that point also influences Romans had begun to be felt. When civilization osca received the coup de grace to Porta Collina 82 BC religion Olympic ended at that point to predominate among the Sunnis.

The meddices, particularly meddix tuticus had a role in the religious life of the state: they were officially under certain ceremonies to ensure that all the details of the ritual were scrupulously observed. They also had to be priests officers and other officials responsible for monitoring and regulating the conduct of the celebrations of the state, to determine when it should fall period interlayer, to define the boundaries of the sanctuaries, to take care of the most ancient and, probably, to adapt the religious life of their states to the changes caused by the Roman domination

[Rafael Passoni]

Great!