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Linguistic Maps
2.3.4 - Bilabial trill [ʙ, ʙ̊] and linguolabial consonants [n̼ t̼ d̼ l̼ - and others]
Very rare sounds. Only present in tribal languages in the equatorial regions of south America, Africa and south-east Asia and Oceania.
2.3.3 - Guttural rhotics [ʀ, ʁ, χ]
Almost all guttural rhotic sounds spread from French in the 18th century on to german, danish, southern dialects of norwegian and swedish, arpitan, occitan, breton, luxembourgish, some dialects of dutch, portuguese, modern hebrew, and sotho. There are also guttural rhotic sounds of unknown origin in a dialect of Malay (Perak region) and in southern and central Paiwan (Formosan language - Taiwan) .
2.3.2 - Alveolar trill and tap
Worthy to note the co-occurrence of the trill and tap: portuguese, spanish, basque, catalan, galician, asturian, sardinian, cyrpriot greek, albanian, armenian, kurdish, malayalam, hausa, Maasai and other Nilo-Saharan languages (Tedaga, Dazaga, Zaghawa), and many Austrialian aboriginal languages.
2.3.1 - Alveolar and retroflex approximants (as rhotics)
Present mainly in English, Dutch dialects, central swedish dialects, some german, irish, and greek dialects, Faroese, Mandarin, Tibetan, Yoruba, Igbo, Mapudungun, south brazilian portuguese dialects, pashto, some Dravidian languages, south vietnamese and in all Australian aboriginal languages. Formely present in burmese, now occuring only in loanwords.
2.2.5 - Pharyngeals and Epyglottals [ħ, ʕ, ʜ]
Rare cross-linguisticaly. Present in several Afro-Asiatic languages (modern standard Arabic, Maltese, Somali, Afar, Berber languages), Pontic and Caspian languages, some dialects of galician, some formosan aboriginal languages and in North America (Haida, Salishan and Wakashan families). Also present in Dahalo (isolate in Arfica). Also reported as sounds in proto-indo-european.
2.2.4 - Lateral Alveolar fricatives [ɬ, ɮ]
Uncommon sounds. Present in Eskimo-Aleut, Icelandic, Faroese, Welsh, Pontic and Caspian languages, Komi, mongolian, tibetan, Hmon-Mien, some formosan aboriginal languages, some Nguni languages (Zulu, Sotho), Mehri, soqotri, and in many language families of north and central America (Uto-Aztecan - nahuan languages -, many Na-Dene, Salishan, Haida, Tsimshianic and others).
2.2.3 - Labiodental approximant [ʋ]
Present in Eskimo-Aleut, many Uralic languages, turkic languages, Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages. Also present in north germanic languages, serbo-croatian, shona, guaraní, dutch, khmer, fijian and hawaiian.
2.2.2 - The interdental voiceless fricative [θ]
Not common cross-linguisticaly but present in many populous languages like english, major varities of arabic, galician, spanish (central and northern Spain), albanian, greek, icelandic, turkmen, burmese and zhuang. Lesser languages include: mapundungun, sami languages, manx, emiliano-romagnolo, amami, bashkir, oshivambo, and some scattered languages in Africa and in North America (Ne-Dene, some dialects of Inuit, etc.)
2.2.1 - Contrast between bilabial [ɸ] and labiodental voiceless [f] fricatives
Very rare. Only present in some dialects of Tuscan, Ewe, Urhobo, Venda and Woleaian.
2.1.9 - Uvular plosives [q, ɢ] (and their variations)
Present near-universally in: Eskimo-Aleut, Mayan, Quechua, Aymara, Toba, Mocovi, Salishan, Tsimshianic, many Na-Dene languages, Afro-Asiatic languages (some dialects of modern Arabic, Somali), some Khoisan languages, many Turkic languages, near-universal in all Caucasian families, Mongolic, Tungusic, Yukaghir and Hmong-Mien. Adopted as a sound by influence of neighbouring languages by: wolof, kurdish, ossetian, persian, pashto, urdu, balochi, sindhi. Also present in some formosan aboriginal languages and it was a phoneme of proto-austronesian.
2.1.8 - The velar nasal and pre-nasalised velars
Very common cross-linguisticaly generally in the middle of the end of a word (in the syllable coda).
2.1.7 - Palatal plosives [c, ɟ]
Red - phonemic palatal plosives
Orange - allophonic palatal plosives in variation with [k, g] before palatal sounds.
Present in many West African languages, near universal in Nilo-Saharan, some bantu languages, near universal in Australian Aboriginal languages. Present in many regions of Europe (canarian spanish, basque, irish, scotish gaelic, icelandic, north norwegian, romansh, corsican, czech, slovak, hungarian, sami, latvian, bulgarian, albanian, macedonian, some dialects of serbo-croatian). Also in sindhi, balochi, tiberan, dzongka, vietnamese, khmer, aceh, balinese. Rare in the Americas.
2.1.6 - Retroflex and apico-alveolar plosives, affricates and fricatives
Light green - apico-alveolars
Dark green - retroflexes
Present in slavic languages, north germanic scandinavian languages, north west and east caucasian languages, dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Sino-Tibetan (many exceptions), javanese, most australian aboriginal languages, malagasy, shona. Afar and somali have retroflex liquids but I decided to represent them here too.
2.1.5 - Alveolo-palatal plosives and fricatives [ɕ, ʑ, ʨ, ʥ]
Dark green represents phonemic status and light green represents allophonic variation. They are present mainly in Europe and Asia. Very caracteristic sounds of slavic languages, mandarin, korean, japanese, thai, vietnamese and swedish.
2.1.4 - Voiceless sonorants
Rare sound interlinguisticaly. Present in Aleutian, Central Yupik, Icelandic, Faroese, Welsh, some Sami languages, Mari, Tibetan, Burmese, Nivkh and some other very isolated languages. Totaly absent from South America, Africa, Australasia and Europe in general.
2.1.3 - Prenasalized consonants
Modern greek is marked slightly more light because it has non-fonemic prenasalized consonants in free variation with plain voiced plosives. Prenasalized consonants occur mainly in Niger-Congo languages, Sinhala, Min, Buginese, Arrernte, Fijian, Vanuatuan languages, Malagasy, Tupi-Guaraní, Carib and Je languages.
Note: The Americas have the pre-colonizarion distibution of languages.
Ejectives are present in some Afro-Asiatic languages (Hausa, Oromo, Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, Soqotri), Khoisan and Nguni languages, Caucasian families, Korean, Na-Dene, Siouan, Salishan, Tsimshianic, Purepecha, Mayan, Quechua, Aymara, Chon, and others.
2.1.1 - Aspirated plosives (fonemic status)
Near universal in the Caucasus, Germanic languages, some Bantu languages, many families of Amerindian languages (Cree, Ojibwa, Na-Dene, Salishan, Athabaskan, Tsimshianic, Uto-Aztecan, Mayan, Quechua, Aymara), Asian languages (including most Sino-Tibetan, Indo-Aryan, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Austroasiatic).
1.1 - Writing systems around the world.
Notes: Light blue is the latin alphabet, and dark blue is the cyrillic alphabet. Perso-arabic abjad is in green, geez (ethiopian) in orange, chinese logographic system in red, and the brahmic systems (abugidas) are in various colours in India and southeast Asia. Some alphabets occur just once: greek, georgian, armenian, hebrew, canadian aboriginal syllabics, cherokee, tifinagh, hangul, japanese syllabaries, and thaana (Maldives).
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