The story of humankind's history has been established primarily from physical evidence that had to be interpreted by geologists, archaeologists, paleontologists and anthropologists. As in criminal court, this process is fraught with uncertainties as experts often draw conflicting conclusions from the same evidence. Genetic science now allows DNA to prove definitive connection between suspect and victim in criminal court and even finer analysis is providing exponentially more reliable data for cladistics and genographic mapping. However, while this may have mitigated controversy over the interpretation of some forensic evidence, hypotheses arise to challenge all but the narrowest conclusions regarding human evolution, so overall the scale and scope of controversy over the broader subject continues unabated.

Despite the compelling evidence the tracing of the Y chromosome marker provides for the common N. Asian ancestory of all living Amerindians - it is insufficient to definitively disprove alternative hypothesis about pre-Clovis populations based on archaeological and other physical evidence. The Solutrean Hypothesis proposes that paleolithic seal hunters in primitive canoes, following the edge of the Laurentide Ice Sheet from Europe, may be the ancestors of Clovis culture that went extinct along with the megafauna from a climatic event known as the Younger Dryas around 12.9 Kya. If all the Clovis died out before interacting with later trans-Siberian arrivals from Beringia 12 Kya- their European DNA would not be present in any extant Amerindians or at least be so rare as not to have shown up in any blood sample so far.

The absolute credibility of the claim that every extant human ancestry can be traced back in a direct line exclusively to the African bushmen of 50 KYA is still in question because there is no Y chromosome sample available from Homo erectus to discount theory that humans might have a mixed evolution that involved direct descendency from a much earlier population of that species in Asia that interbred with some of the later African diaspora.

By analysing the Y chromosome of people from around the world, genetic researchers were able to build a genographic map that shows the path behaviorally modern humans took in migrating out of Africa 50 Kya.

Evidence of Homo sapiens in a S. African cave 72 Kya but stone instead of bone points suggests the quantum leap in intellect had not yet evolved.

Climatic events 70-50 Kya causes sporadic ice age conditions that drop sea levels and turns lush African pastures into desert.

2000 generations ago (50 Kya) behaviorally advanced Homo sapiens - the direct ancestors of San and Hadzabe Bushmen (now extant in the Kalahari in Namibia and Tanzania) are driven by drought to follow their quarry searching for grasslands out of Africa. (The click language of the San and Hadzabe does not exist elsewhere in the world.)

The next genetic evidence for descendants out of Africa shows up at a 45 Kya site in Lake Mungo at Laura in Queensland, Australia. Somehow the aboriginal's ancestors were able to complete the journey (the drop in sea level that provided a continuous land route through Indonesia still left a 150 mile wide stretch of open sea to reach the continent.)

The search for the next time the African haplogroup marker shows up takes us to the temple city of Madurai in the Tamil Nadu District in southern India where genomic sequencing from one man shows a single nucleotide ancient bloodmarker in his Y chromosome. This is also the site where the earliest archaeological evidence of behaviorally modern Homo sapiens has been found.

About 40,000 years ago sapiens have spread to central asia following the grasslands resulting from cooling climate. An episode of migrations begins that moves people from central Asia - two groups moved east to China's north and south and another group moves down to India. It will take another five thousand years before the first people from central Asia migrate to Europe to become the Cro Magnon who create pictographs in Penche Merle cave in France.

Wells' earlier expedition in 1998 had provided blood samples from Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan and he reconnects with a man named Niyazov -a Kazakh Turk who lives in Kazakhstan near the border of Kyrgyzstan. Niyazov has African markers that go back 2000 generations and also has an important Y chromosome marker called M45. That indicates Central Asia is where M45 originated and where both Europeans and Native Americans were descendant from.

That marker is carried by people migrating to the Siberian arctic- ancestors of the contemporary Chukchi- nomadic reindeer herders whose entire sustinance is derived from lichen growing on the permafrost. Wills' expedition goes to town of Amguea in Siberia and travels via helicopter and converted Russian tank to Chukchi encampment 200 mi north of the arctic circle.

20 Kya, a group of their ancestors, an original tribe of perhaps 20-30 individuals journeyed across Beringia 20 Kya to N Alaska at the height of the ice age when temperatures got as cold (-60 below) as at any time in the human odessey. Here they settled for thousands of years trapped from further migration south by Alaskan glaciers.

Around 13 Kya as the ice age waned, a corridor opened up that allowed a small band consisting of as few as 2 males in a group of a dozen individuals to migrate south. In less than 1000 years, all of N and S America were populated by their descendants - from Inuit to Inca - with the Chukchi haplogroup marker.

Niyazov - who has 40.000 years old markers