Some conservation organisations in Africa are operating a shoot-to-kill policy against poachers, to protect endangered species, a study says.
An academic from the University of Manchester told the BBC that private security firms and mercenaries were being used to train game rangers.
Prof Rosaleen Duffy has researched the issue for 15 years for a book to be published this month.
She said these military-style campaigns were occurring across the continent.
Ms Duffy says the development of nature tourism has meant international pressure to save high-profile species is intense.
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