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Introduction: The Genetics of Intelligence
Our ability to think and act intelligently is the defining characteristic of human beings as a species—and
each person’s overall level of cognitive ability is one of the key factors that can affect how successful
and healthy they are [1, 2, 3].
Probably the most well-known measure of overall cognitive ability is the intelligence quotient (IQ). A
person’s level of IQ correlates with a wide variety of life outcomes ranging from how well they perform at
school, how much money they make, and even how likely they are to suffer from lifestyle-related health
conditions (such as diabetes, strokes, and heart attacks) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
IQ is also highly heritable : scientists estimate that 50-80% of our variability in overall intelligence can
be explained by genetic factors that we inherit from our parents [9, 10]. This means that variations in
our genes have a very significant impact on how well our brains function!
However, intelligence is also a highly “polygenic ” trait, meaning that it is influenced by many
different genes, each of which may only have a small effect on a person’s overall level of intelligence
[4, 9]. In other words, how smart you are is determined by a very large number of genes, and how they all
work together in concert to promote optimal brain health and function—it’s not just about a few
“intelligence-related” genes!
Because the number of genes that affect cognitive potential is so large, in this report we have
focused specifically on:
1. Genes that have been directly associated either with general intelligence, or with the individual
cognitive functions that form the essential “building blocks” of general intelligence.
2. Genes that directly affect the various biological mechanisms that determine how effectively the
brain encodes, stores, and processes information.
3. Genes whose effects can be targeted with supplements and lifestyle changes, either directly (e.g.
by increasing/decreasing gene activity) or indirectly (e.g. by improving the biological system
affected by a certain gene variant).
By taking this approach, we’ve homed in on a set of genes that not only play a role in determining
how sharp you are, but which you can also target with supplements, diet, and other lifestyle hacks to
help you draw out more of your brain’s full cognitive potential !
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Intelligence: Brain Mechanisms and Cognitive Functions
Although most people probably associate intelligence with a single “overall” measure such as IQ,
general intelligence is a highly complex trait that involves many aspects of biology and cognitive
function all working together in concert [11, 12, 13].
Some scientists who study cognitive ability have linked certain genetic variants to overall
intelligence. However, the brain is incredibly complex, and it can often be difficult to identify any single
gene that can be directly linked to all cognitive activity as a whole [3, 9, 14].
For this reason, many scientists focus instead on associating certain genes with the individual
biological and cognitive functions that serve as the basic building blocks of overall intelligence. This
approach makes sense because individual genes often have specialized functions—such as helping new
neurons grow or creating specific types of neurotransmitters—that affect a person’s ability to carry out
certain types of cognitive functions. An individual’s genetic strengths or weaknesses in any one specific
cognitive function will therefore influence their overall level of intelligence [9, 13, 15, 16].
Some of the major biological mechanisms related to cognitive ability include:
Neurogenesis: The brain’s ability to grow and develop new neurons throughout adulthood and
into later life, which is especially critical for learning and memory [17, 18, 19, 20].
Synaptic Plasticity: The brain’s ability to adjust how individual neurons connect and
communicate with each other. This plasticity allows them to encode and store new information
and memories [21, 22].
Myelination: The brain’s ability to provide neurons with the special coating (myelin ) that they
need to be able to transmit signals quickly and efficiently [2, 23, 24, 25].
Oxidative Stress: The brain’s ability to protect cells from oxidative damage caused by reactive
oxygen species (ROS), sometimes also known as free radicals . Without this protection, neurons
accumulate damage over time, which makes them work less effectively (or even die off
altogether) [26, 27].
Inflammation: The brain’s ability to regulate immune system activity and prevent inflammatory
responses from interfering with cognitive function. Chronic inflammation in the brain can lead to
neuronal damage and cell death, which can result in cognitive impairments over time [28, 29].
DNA Modification and Repair: The brain’s ability to turn certain genes “on” or “off” (via
methylation ) and to repair any mistakes that might occur when cells copy their DNA during
reproduction. These are critical functions with significant long-term impacts on the brain’s ability
to function properly [30, 31, 32, 33].
Diet and Other Lifestyle Factors: The brain’s response to common everyday behaviors, such as
our diet and exercise habits, can have a powerful influence on how efficiently our brain carries
out complex cognitive processes [34, 35].
Some of the individual cognitive functions that serve as the major building-blocks of overall cognitive
ability include:
Processing Speed: The amount of time it takes for the brain to take in, analyze, and react to
incoming information [36, 37, 38, 39].
Learning and Memory: The brain’s ability to process and store new information so that it can be
later recalled from memory. Some studies break these processes down even further into specific
forms of memory and learning, such as spatial, verbal, and working memory [40, 41, 42, 43].
Cognitive Flexibility: The brain’s ability to adapt its processing to new contexts and situations.
This function includes picking up on new information, switching between tasks efficiently, and
resisting distraction by irrelevant information. Studies that look at attention, concentration, or
executive function would fall into this general category of mental functioning [44, 45, 46, 47].
“Fluid” and “Crystallized” Intelligence: Fluid intelligence refers to a person’s ability to reason
through and react to new situations. In contrast, crystallized intelligence refers to the skills and
knowledge that a person has built up or acquired over the course of previous experience,
practice, or education. Together, these factors make up general intelligence (IQ); however, some
genes only affect one or the other [9, 48].
Because overall intelligence can be influenced by all of these diverse biological and cognitive factors,
the table below contains SNPs in genes that each affect different combinations of these factors. By
putting these all together, we can calculate a single overall score (a “genome-wide polygenic score ”)
that represents your cognitive ability as a whole [16, 49] !
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Overall Cognitive Ability
Below is a list of all the cognitive function-related SNPs we have analyzed in this report, along with
your unique genotype for each.
Keep in mind that not all SNPs are made equal -- some can have a bigger effect on your overall
cognitive ability than others! For this reason, we have carefully weighted each SNP to reflect its
total impact on your genome-wide polygenic score , which is summarized below the table.
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