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M

MALARS

= zygomatic bones.

MALAYID

= Nesid.

MALID

Veddid subvariety of the southern Indian inlands, showing Negritid admixture.

Malid woman

MALOCCLUSION

Misalignment of teeth and or incorrect relation between the teeth of the two dental arches, cf. occlusion. Types of malocclusion include prognathism and retrognathism.

MANDIBLE

The bone forming the lower jaw; the largest and strongest bone of the face, presenting a body and a pair of rami, which articulate with the skull at the tempromandibular joints.

MANDIBULAR ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-gn-t)

Measured in relation to gnathion and the tragia.

MANDIBULAR BODY HEIGHT

Use the same technique as when measuring the height of the mandibular symphysis, but in a vertical plane, between the first and second molars. Measure with sliding calipers.

MANDIBULAR BODY LENGTH (gn-go)

Measured between gnathion and gonion.

MANDIBULAR DEPTH (gn-t)

Measured between gonion and tragion.

MANDIBULAR RAMUS HEIGHT (go-cdl)

Measured between gonion and condylion laterale.

MANDIBULAR SYMPHYSIS HEIGHT (gn-id)

Measured from gnathion to infradentale with sliding calipers.

Measuring the height of
the mandibular symphysis

MARGID (Sonorid (Biasutti))

Indianid type. Medium-sized, robust dolicho-mesocephals of California and Sonara, and (at much lower frequency) in Mexico, the Rocky Mountains (Shoshons), Florida and along the East Coast north to Newfoundland. The Margid type is characterized by a supraorbital bulge, a broad but not flat face, small eyelid slits (without Mongolid characteristics), a medium-broad to broad, moderately prominent straight or concave nose with a clearly retracted root, smooth hair and dark brown skin with slightly red tone. Lundman proposed a further subdivision of Margid into Californid and Mexicid types.

Margid

MASTOIDALE

A paired point at the inferior tip of the mastoid process. It is used to measure mastoid length.

MASTOID CRESTS

= supramastoid ridges.

MASTOID PROCESS

The mastoid portion of the temporal bone.

MAXILLAE

Paired bones uniting to form the upper jawbone. The maxillae atriculate with every bone of the face except the mandible, or lower jawbone.

MAXILLARY ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-sn-t)

Measured in relation to subnasale and the tragia.

MAXILLARY DEPTH (sn-t)

Measured between tragion and subnasale.

MAXILLARY PROGNATHISM

Protrusion of the maxilla. Maxillary prognathism affects a large area of the face, causing it to jut out. Cf. prognathism.

MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR BREADTH (ecm-ecm) (palatal breadth)

Between the ectomolares. The distance between the external surfaces of the alveolar border, usually, opposite the second molar teeth. Measured with sliding or hinge calipers. If there are any exostoses (bony growths projecting outward) on the border they are to be avoided by placing the ends of the calipers in an unaffected area.

MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR INDEX

maxillo-alveolar breadth * 100
       maxillo-alveolar length

           - 109.99 = dolichuranial (long-/narrow-palated)
110.00 - 114.99 = mesuranial (of moderate palatal form)
115.00 -            = brachyuranial (broad-/short-palated)

Maxillo-alveolar index

MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR LENGTH (pr-alv) (palatal length)

Between prosthion and alveolon. Measured with sliding or hinge calipers. Place one end of the calipers on prosthion and the other on a straight wire, knitting needle or wood rod placed across the posterior edges of the alveolar processes (alveolon) of the two sides.

MAXILLOFRONTALE (mf)

A paired point at the intersection of the anterior lacrimal crest (on the frontal process of the maxilla) and the frontomaxillary suture. It is on the medial margin of the orbit and can be used to measure orbital width. To locate maxillofrontale, extend the medial edge of the eye orbit with a pencil line until the line crosses the fronto-maxillary suture.

MAXIMUM BIPARIETAL BREADTH

The maximum breadth of the skull taken above the supramastoid crests.

MAXIMUM CRANIAL BREADTH/WIDTH

= maximum head breadth

MAXIMUM CRANIAL LENGTH

= maximum head length

MAXIMUM FACIAL BREADTH (zy-zy) (bizygomatic diameter)

Measured with sliding or spreading calipers. By palpation locate the most lateral point of the zygomatic arch with the tips of index fingers and place the caliper tips on the arches with enough pressure to feel the bone; move the calipers back and forth, up and down until scale shows maximum reading.

Maximum facial breadth

MAXIMUM FRONTAL BREADTH (maximum frontal diameter)

The distance between the lower anterior extremities of the frontal bone at the fronto-malar junctures. Measured with spreading or sliding calipers.

MAXIMUM HEAD BREADTH (eu-eu) (maximum cranial breadth)

The maximum width or breadth between the parietal bones perpendicular to the median sagittal plane is instrumentally determined as both ends of the spreading calipers are moved back and forth on the sides of the skull, above the supramastoid crest until the maximum width is located. If measuring skeletally, be careful of skulls with warped temporal bones; sometimes the temporals have spread out and width should not be taken from these.

Maximum head breadth

MAXIMUM HEAD HEIGHT

On the living the height measurement is the auricular height. On the skull the basion-bregma height is usually employed.

MAXIMUM HEAD LENGTH (g-op)

Place one end of the spreading calipers on glabella and support it with your finger. With the other end, locate the most posterior point on the midline (opisthocranion) and record length in millimetres. Conventional technique keeps calipers along a sagittal midline; however, in patients with plagiocephaly, the posterior point of the skull may not be in the midline of the cranium; for clinical purposes take this measurement at the most posterior location.

Maximum head length

MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF THE BODY OF THE LOWER JAW

The maximum separation of the internal and external surfaces of the bone in the plane between the first and second molars. Measure with spreading calipers.

MEDIAL

Toward the midline.

MEDIAN SAGITTAL PLANE (midsagittal plane)

A vertical plane that passes through the center of the body, dividing it into right and left sides.

MEDITERRANID (Westisch ("Western", Günther))

A para-family of mostly brunet Europid types, all more or less dolichocephalic, orthognathous, meso- to leptorrhine, narrow-faced, fine-boned, and of medium head size. Mediterranids can be short-, medium- or tall-statured. The Mediterranid family, by no means a tightly knit group, subsumes the majority of peoples living in a belt running west to east from the Iberian peninsula and southern Italy, and throughout North Africa and the Black Sea area. Some anthropologists include Orientalids and even Indids in this already sprawling category. Some generally recognized Mediterranid types are Atlanto-Mediterranid, Gracile-Mediterranid and Pontid. The term is also used more specifically to refer to the Gracile-Mediterranid variety.

MEGALITHIC

MELANOCHROI

“Dark whites” from North Africa and southern Europe to India, in Huxley’s typology. They and the Xanthochroi constitute the two main branches of the white (“Caucasic”) race, according to his (rather outdated) system.

MENDEL, GREGOR JOHANN

(1822 – 1884) An Augustinian monk who showed that the inheritance of traits in living organisms follows particular laws (later known as Mendelian laws). Mendel is widely recognized as the "father of genetics", as his studies in heredity prompted the foundation of the discipline.

Gregor Johann Mendel

MENDELISM (Mendelian inheritance)

The whole body of principles of heredity formulated by Mendel, that represent the basis of genetics.

MENTON

= gnathion.

MESATICEPHALIC

= mesocephalic; seldom used.

MESENE (mesial)

Possessing an upper facial index of 50.0 to 54.9; of moderate upper facial form.

MESOCEPHALIC (mesaticephalic)

Possessing a cephalic index of 75.0 to 79.9 (77.78 to 80.00 in the French system); intermediate in head form. Mesocephaly is the nominal form, and a mesocephalic individual is referred to as a mesocephal.

MESOCONCH

Possessing an orbital index of 83.0 to 88.9; of moderate or intermediate orbital form.

MESOCRANIAL

Possessing a cranial index of 75.0 to 79.9; of moderate or intermediate skull form.

MESOGNATHOUS

= Andamanids, in the typology of Huxley.

MINIMUM BREADTH OF ASCENDING RAMUS

Minimum distance between the anterior and posterior borders of the ascending ramus, measured with sliding calipers. Can be taken on either right or left but left is standard for comparison.

MINIMUM FRONTAL BREADTH (ft-ft) (minimum frontal diameter)

MODERN SYNTHESIS

= Neo-Darwinism.

MONGOLID (Homo sapiens asiaticus; Mongolian or Yellow race (Blumenbach; excluding Indianids))

One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens; characterized by a generally short stature, a pyknic build and short legs, a flattish face, prominent cheekbones, high orbits, ortho- or mesognathy (the latter often the result of alveolar prognathism), narrow eyes (typically featuring epicanthus, but this is not an exclusive feature), usually snubbed or concave (but also straight and even convex) noses, and full lips. The teeth are characterized by sinodonty. Face and body hair is very weak, and head hair is usually straight, sometimes gently waving, and black to very dark-brown in color. The eyes are dark, and the skin color varies between very light and swarthy. Mongolids are found in Siberia (e.g. Sibirid), Chukotka-Kamchatka, Turkestan, Mongolia (e.g. Tungid), Manchuria, Korea, Japan, China (e.g. Sinid), Tibet, Nepal, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Indochina (e.g. Paleo-Mongolids, who are at least partially non-Mongolid), Taiwan, the Phillipines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Oceania, Madagascar, North America, South America, and the other surrounding islands of these areas (Indianids, who are diverse, and significantly derived from Asian Mongolids).

Mongolid skull (male)

MONGOLOID

Resembling or approaching Mongolid; characterized by Mongolid-specific features.

MONOTYPIC

Of a species, having no geographical races. Cf. polytypic.

MONTANDON, GEORGES

(1879-1944) A French anthropologist. He is infamous for having provided certificates of "Aryanness" during the Nazi occupation, and he also claimed to have evidence for a Bigfoot-like simian inhabiting the jungles of South America.

Georges Montandon

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Non-metrical, observational attributes of the human body.

MORPHOLOGICAL FACE HEIGHT (n-gn) (total face height)

Meausured with sliding calipers. Place the fixed tip of the calipers at the subject's gnathion, slide the moveable end superiorly until it contacts nasion.

MORPHOLOGY

The branch of biology which deals with the form and structure of organisms, without consideration of function. The term also applies to the form and structure of the organism itself (=phenotype).

MORPHOTYPE

Australid subtype of a heavy and thickset variety, characterized by light brown skin, wavy hair, and significant pilous growth. Similarities to the Ainuids of Japan have been considered. The Murrayians are associated by some with an alleged second wave of Australian aborigines (following that of the Barrineans) who survived in the Murray Basin and on the east, south and west coasts at the time of European settlement.

MUTATION

Change in the structure of a gene caused by some external agent.

MUTATION RATE

The chance of a mutation occurring in an organism or gene in each generation.

NASAL BONE

Small oblong bones that meet at the middle and superior part of the face; their fusion forms the superior part of the bridge of the nose.

NASAL BRIDGE LENGTH (n-prn)

Measured between nasion and pronasale.

NASAL EMINENCE

= glabella.

NASAL INDEX (N.I.)

nose width * 100
    nose height

According to the Frankfort Agreement:

N.I.        - 47.0 = leptorrhine (narrow-nosed)
N.I. 47.1 - 51.0 = mesorrhine (having a nose of moderathe width)
N.I. 51.1 - 58.0 = platyrrhine (wide-nosed)
N.I. 58.1 -        = hyperplatyrrhine (very wide-nosed)

According to Broca:

N.I.     < 48 = leptorrhine
N.I. 48 - 53 = mesorrhine
N.I. 53 - 58 = platyrrhine

Nasal index

NASAL MIDLINE (m')

The midline of the bridge of the nose.

NASAL ROOT HEIGHT (en-m')

Measured between endocanthion and the nasal midline.

NASAL ROOT SLOPE (en-m')

Measured using endocanthion and the nasal midline.

NASAL ROOT WIDTH (mf-mf)

The breadth of the nasal root, measured between the maxillofrontales.

NASAL TIP PROTRUSION (sn-prn)

The extent of protrusion of the tip of the nose, measured between subnasale and pronasale.

NASIO-BREGMATIC ARC

The distance, on the external surface of the skull in a sagittal line, between nasion and bregma; the sagittal arc of the frontal bone.

NASION (n)

The midpoint on the nasofrontal suture; the root of the nose.

NASION DEPRESSION

The depression in the facial profile below glabella, in the region of nasion.

NASO-LABIAL FOLDS

The creases running from the nasal wings to the corners of the mouth, and delimiting the area of the integumental upper lip.

NASOSPINALE (ns)

The lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture as projected in the mid-sagittal plane. In crania with slight to moderate development of the anterior nasal spine, this point is easily determined by connecting the lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture right and left of the nasal spine. Nasospinale is located wherever this line is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane at the base of the nasal spine. If the nasal spine is well developed, mark the point of nasospinale on the lateral wall of the projecting nasal spine. However, if the nasal spine is at or below the line connecting the lowest point on the inferior margins of the aperture lowest point on the nasospinale is found on the upper margin of the nasal spine.

NATURAL SELECTION

The mechanism of evolutionary change first articulated by Charles Darwin; refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals. Cf. fitness, sexual selection.

NEGRID (Africoid; Congoid (Coon); Ethiopian or Black race (Blumenbach); Homo sapiens afer; Negroid)

One of the major subspecies or races of Homo sapiens, indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa. Negrids are characterized by dolichocephaly (excepting Paleo-Negrids and some Bambutids), prognathism, chamaerrhiny, dark brown to blue-black skin and frizzy black hair. There are a series of subvarieties or clinal end-types, including Sudanid ("standard" Negrid), Paleo-Negrid, Nilotid, Bambutid, Kafrid and Aethiopid.

Negrid skull (male)

NEGRILLO

African Pygmy, cf. Bambutid.

NEGRITID (Asian Pygmid)

The type of the so-called Negritos, pygmy-sized, dark-skinned aborigines of southeastern Asia. Negritids are found in the Philippines (the Aeta), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (the Andamanid subvariety), the Malay Peninsula (the Semang), and elsewhere, and are considered the descendants of the earliest sapiens settlers of southeastern Asia.

Negrito from Zambales (the Philippines)

NEGROID

Resembling or approaching Negrid.

NEO-DANUBIAN (Oriental (Deniker))

The larger body of evolutionary thought that was inspired by the unification of natural selection and Mendelism.

NEO-MELANESID

Melanesid subtype exemplified by the aboriginal population of New Guinea. Neo-Melanesids are medium-statured, slender and sturdily built, with mesocephalic heads and long faces, high, often convex, yet wide noses with elongated apex, and moderately broad lips. The skin is dark, the hair is dark and frizzly ("negroid"), and the eyes are brown. Facial and body hair development is notable. Neo-Melanesids are prevalent in New Guinea, and are typified by the Papuans. Cf. Paleo-Melanesid.

Balinese girls of standard Nesid type (after Vogel)

NEW HOLLAND RACE

= Australid, in the typology of Agassiz.

NICHE

The limited portions of the environment, in terms of space, resources, etc., that a species fits and/or that it requires for its survival and reproductive success.

NILOTID

Negrid subtype, partially influenced by Europid, and associated with the upper Nile area. They are extremely tall and long-legged, long- and narrow-skulled and quite long-faced, with gracile features. The interorbital distance is small, the nose is narrow, straight and high-rooted, with characteristically Negrid inflation of the nostrils, yet not at all broad. The lips are thinner than those of more typical Negrids (e.g. Sudanids), and there is no prognathy. The Nilotid chin is strong, and the ears are small. The skin is very dark.

Nilotid youth

NORDALPINOID

= Borreby.

NORDICIZATION

Evolutionary tendency in a Nordid morphological direction. A popular term of little practical value.

NORDID (Nordic)

A group of strongly depigmented Northern European dolicho-mesocephalic leptomorphs, whose similarities are partially the result of shared origins, partially of convergent evolution. There are three generally recognized Nordid types: the classic Hallstatt Nordid, the northwestern European Keltic Nordid, and the eastern European East-Nordid. For some brief speculation on the topic of Nordid origins, please read the introduction to The Nordish Gallery.

Nordid skull

NORDIFORM

Resembling or approaching the Nordid form in certain respects.

NORDISH

Northern European Europid para-group of Cro-Magnids and Nordids, all mostly tall-statured and depigmented, and cohabitant in relative intermixture. Not primarily a phylogenetic entity.

NORDOID

Similar or related to Nordid.

NORDO-MEDITERRANID

Cf. "Atlantid".

NORID (Sub-Adriatic (Deniker))

Nordid altered by Dinarid admixture; the term Noric was coined by Lebzelter. Norids are the prevalent type in Austria, and are also common in northern France and adjacent areas. Coon, who theorized that Nordids are essentially depigmented Mediterranids, suggested that the formation of Norids did not necessitate Dinarid admixture, merely the process of dinaricization upon a depigmented Mediterranid population. SNPA account here.

Norid from Carinthia

NORTH-ATLANTID (~ Northwestern (Deniker))

Predominantly Nordid (Keltic Nordid) blend with an Atlanto-Mediterranid strain. North-Atlantids are typically dark-haired and light-eyed, and constitute an important element in the British Isles, and particularly in Wales. SNPA account here.

North-Atlantid

NORTH-INDID (Indo-Afghan (Deniker); Nordindid (German sp.))

Northwestern Indid subtype characterized by relatively tall stature, dolichocephaly, a head height which is comparatively smaller than that of the Gracile-Indid type, and a long, prominent and leptorrhine nose. The skin color varies between rosy white and light brown, the hair is straight and varies in shade between chestnut and brown, and the eye color varies between gray-blue and light brown. The North-Indid morphology is typical of the Sikhs and the Brahmin, and the type is transitional to the Iranid variety.

North-Indid

NORTH-PONTID

Sometimes used of Nordid/Corded-Pontid intermediates, typical of e.g. the Ukrainian population.

NORTH-SINID (Hoid (Lundman); Nordsinid (German sp.))

Sinid subtype. North-Sinids are characterized by relatively great stature, narrow faces and noses, low cephalic indices, high height-length indices, moderate amounts of subcutaneous fat and relatively light pigmentation. North-Sinids are found in Northern China (Khitaid subtype) and Korea (Chosonid subtype).

North-Sinid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)

NORTHWESTERN

In Deniker's typology, a blue-eyed, dark-haired element in the Irish population, which he considered an Atlanto-Mediterranid type. It is more or less synonymous with North-Atlantid.

NOSE HEIGHT (n-sn) (nasal height)

On the skull, from nasion to the lower borders of the piriform opening; on the living, from nasion to the lowest point on the posterior border of the nasal septum, where it joins the upper lip. Place the fixed point of the sliding calipers at nasion, and with the movable point obtain the mean of the lowest points of the right and left nasal margins (nasospinale).

NOSE WIDTH (al-al) (nasal breadth, columella width)

The maximum breadth of the nasal aperture between the anterior surfaces of its lateral margins. Measured at right angle to the height.

NOSTRIL FLOOR WIDTH (sbal-sn) (ala thickness)

The breadth of the nostril floor, measured between subalare and subnasale.

NUCHAL

Pertaining to the neck.

NUCLEAR DNA

DNA contained within a nucleus of eukaryotic organisms. In most cases it encodes more of the genome than the mitochondrial DNA, and is passed sexually rather than matrilineally.

OBELION

The point on the sagittal suture between the two parietal foramina.

OBERCASSEL

Skeletal remains found in 1914 in Obercassel, near Bonn (Germany). The stature of Obercassel was probably ~170 cm. The skull, which may be called Cro-Magnoid, is large, dolicho- and orthocranial, with a rounded occipital region. The face is low, the browridges are prominent, and the bizygomatic diameter is enormous. The chin is protruding, and there is no prognathism. In life, the nose of Obercassel was leptorrhine and beak-like.

Obercassel

OCCIPITAL

Pertaining to the occipital bone.

OCCIPITAL BUN (chignon)

Prominent bulge or projection of the occipital bone. The term is most often used in connection with scientific descriptions of classic Neanderthal crania. While characteristic of many of humankind's earlier relatives, occipital buns are relatively rare in modern sapiens. They do however occur fairly often among Australids, Khoisanids and Lappids, and, interestingly, among Europid inhabitants of Lancashire, UK.

Occipital bun (caption) on a Neanderthal
cranium from Mount Cicero, Italy

OCCIPUT (occipital bone)

A single trapezoid-shaped bone situated at the posterior and inferior part of the cranium, from the foramen magnum to lambda.

OCCIPITAL FLATTENING

A vertical flattening of the occipital bones below lambda; in some cases of hereditary and in others of artificial causation. Cf. planoccipital.

OCCIPITAL TORUS

A pronounced ridging of the superior nuchal line of the occiput.

OCCLUSION

The manner in which the teeth of the upper and lower arches come together when the mouth is closed. Cf. malocclusion.

OCEANIC NEGROID

A term used by Coon (The Origin of Races (1962)) to denote the Melanesid racial type(s).

OLD GERMANIC REIHENGRÄBER TYPE

The large-framed, high-skulled and Cro-Magnid-influenced variety of Iron Age Nordid reflected today e.g. in the Anglo-Saxon and Friterpian types. In northern Germany, such forms are more common than Nordids proper.

OPHYRON (on) (point intersoucilier)

The point at the mid-plane of a line tangent to the upper limits of the eyebrows (sci-sci).

OPISTHION (o)

The point at which the external and internal surfaces of the occipital bone meet on the posterior margin of the foramen magnum in its median plane.

OPISTHOCRANION (op) (opisthocranium)

The most posteriorly protruding point on the back of the braincase, located in the mid-sagittal plane. Opisthocranion almost always falls on the superior squama of the occipital bone, and only occasionally on the external occipital protuberance. Opisthocranion can generally be established while obtaining the measurement of maximum cranial length. However, in some cases where the superior squama forms a partial sphere with glabella as its midpoint, opisthocranion cannot be determined in this manner. In such cases, each point on the partial sphere represents the maximum distance and opisthocranion is located arbitrarily approximately at a point in the middle of the spherical segment.

ORALE (ol)

The single most anterior point on the hard palate where a line drawn lingual to the central incisors intersects the palatal suture. It is used to measure palatal length.

ORBIT

The bony eye socket.

ORBITAL BREADTH

The maximum distance of the orbit from maxillofrontale to the middle of the lateral orbital border (ectoconchion). Measurement can also be taken from dacryon or lacrimale, but maxillofrontale is preferable since this is most often present. Since bones of the medial wall of the eve orbit are quite fragile, dacryon and lacrimale are often missing in in archaeological specimens. Measured with sliding calipers.

ORBITALE (or)

A paired point at the lowest part of the orbital margin. It is used to define the Frankfort Horizontal Plane and to measure orbital height.

ORBITALE SUPERIUS (os)

The highest point on the margin of the orbit.

ORBITAL HEIGHT (os-or)

The maximum height from the upper to the lower orbital borders perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the orbit and using the middle of the inferior border as a fixed point. Either or both orbits may he measured, but the left is standard. Measured with sliding calipers.

ORBITAL INCLINATION

= eye-fissure inclination.

ORBITAL INDEX

orbital height * 100
    orbital breadth

         - 82.99 = chamaeoconch (wide-orbited)
83.00 - 89.99 = mesoconch (of moderate orbital breadth)
89.00 -          = hypsiconch (narrow-orbited)

ORDER

Taxonomic category of organisms ranking above family and below class.

ORBITO-TRAGIAL DEPTH (ex-t) (orbito-tragial distance; upper cheek depth)

Measured on the left and right sides of the face using spreading calipers. Position the anterior tip of the calipers at the exocanthion, and lightly touch the tragus with the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.

ORIENTAL

In Deniker's typology (race orientale), an eastern European brachycephalic racial type, which Coon calls Neo-Danubian.

ORIENTALID

Middle-Eastern/Central Asiatic Europid type, comprising the southern Arabid and northeastern Iranid varieties (in the typology of von Eickstedt). In some systems it is synomymous with Arabid. Carleton Coon, and others with him, considered all these types to be Mediterranids.

ORKDAL TYPE

A special phenotype associated with central Scandinavian portions of the Trønder gradient, named after the Norwegian village of Orkdal, and exhibiting a predominance of Corded features.

ORTHOCEPHALIC

Possessing a length-height index of 70.0 - 74.9; of moderate head height. Orthocephaly is the nominal form, and an orthocephalic individual is referred to as a orthocephal.

ORTHOGENESIS

The erroneous idea that species tend to evolve in a fixed direction because of some inherent force driving them to do so.

ORTHOGNATHOUS

Straight-jawed, with an angle of 85-89,9°.

OSTEOLOGY

The study of skeletal material.

ØSTERDAL-TYPE

= Hallstatt Nordid, in Bryn's typology.

OSTEUROPID

= Baltid (including East-Baltid and even Lappoid), in the typology of v. Eickstedt.

OSTISCH ("Eastern")

= Alpinid, in Günther's typology.

OTOBASION INFERIUS (obi)

The lowest point of attachment of the exteral ear to the head.

OTOBASION SUPERIUS (obs)

The highest point of attachment of the exteral ear to the head.

OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS (African Replacement Hypothesis)

The hypothesis which states that all living humans are descended from a small group of people in Africa, who dispersed into Eurasia, Oceania and America, displacing earlier hominids. Cf. Multi-Regional Hypothesis.

OVER-EXPRESSION

Abnormal expression of a trait in the phenotype of an individual, resulting from the presence of extra chromosomes or copies of the genes responsible for the trait. For example, Down syndrome traits are likely the consequence of inheriting three chromosome 21's instead of the usual two. Apparently, the genes on the extra chromosome are also expressed.

OVERSPECIALIZED

Adapted so specifically to a particular niche that the genetic variation necessary to meet changing conditions has been lost. Cf. specialized.

PACIFIC RACE

= Polynesid, in the typology of Agassiz.

PACIFID (Western American Temperate Race (Agassiz, roughly equivalent))

Indianid type. Medium to tall, robust brachycephals of the western Canadian coast and eastern Alaska, as well as the outskirts of the northwestern USA and the Rio Grande (Navajo, Apache). Pacifids are characterized by broad, rectangular faces, scarcity of Mongolid eye features, medium-broad straight or slightly convex, striking noses, smooth or slightly wavy hair (sporadically lightened), moderately strong beard and body hair growth and light brownish skin.

Pacifid Navajo (after
Knußmann)

PAEDOMORPHOSIS (foetalization)

Retention of juvenile (infantile) physical characteristics well into maturity. Neoteny/foetalization is the evolutionary process by which paedomorphosis is attained. Paedomorphous (or paedomorphic) characteristics in women are widely acknowledged as desirable by men.

PALATAL BREADTH

= maxillo-alveolar breadth.

PALATAL LENGTH

= maxillo-alveolar length.

PALATAL TORUS

A thickening and downward projection of the central sagittal line marking the junction of the two sides of the palate.

PALATINE BONE

One of two irregularly shaped bones (L-shaped) forming the posterior part of the hard palate, the lateral wall of the nasal fossa between the medial pterygoid plate and the maxilla, and the posterior part of the floor of the orbit; the posterior part of the hard palate, which separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity, is formed by the horizontal plates.

PALAUNGID

Paleo-Mongolid variety of mainland Southeast Asia. Cf. Nesid.

Vietnamese Palaungid
(after Knußmann)

PALEOANTHROPOLOGY

PALPEBRALE SUPERIUS (ps)

The highest point on the upper margin of the middle portion of the eyelid.

PALPEBRAL OPENING

Random mating throughout a population.

PARAPATRIC SPECIATION

The "mode" of speciation by which a population is dispersed over a large geographic area, with reduced extent of gene flow throughout the population, resulting in hybrid zones between reproductively isolated species.

PARAPHYLETIC GROUP

A set of species containing an ancestral species together with some, but not all, of its descendants. The species included in the group are those that have continued to resemble the ancestor; the excluded species have evolved rapidly and no longer resemble their ancestor.

PARIETAL ARC

Measured from nasion anteriorly to bregma posteriorly, using tape (cf. parietal chord).

PARIETAL BONES

One of the two quadrilateral bones on either side of the cranium forming part of the superior and lateral surfaces of the skull, and joining each other in the midline at the sagittal suture. The parietal bones form the greater portion of the sides and roof of the cranial cavity.

PARIETAL CHORD

Measured from nasion anteriorly to bregma posteriorly, using sliding calipers (cf. parietal arc).

PARIETAL SUBTENSE

The highest intermediate point between nasion anteriorly and bregma posteriorly, located with coordinate calipers.

PATAGONID

= Pampid.

PAUDLER

[entry pending]

PERIPATRIC SPECIATION

= peripheral isolate speciation.

PERIPHERAL ISOLATE SPECIATION (peripatric speciation)

A form of allopatric speciation in which the new species is formed from a small population isolated at the edge of the ancestral population's geographic range.

Peripheral isolate speciation

PHALIAN/PHALID

= Dalo-Falid.

PHENETIC CLASSIFICATION

A method of classification in which species are grouped together with other species that they most closely resemble phenotypically.

The tracing of the history of the evolutionary development of a life form; the evolution of a line.

PHYLUM

Taxonomic category ranking above class and below kingdom.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (biological anthropology)

The study of the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. A partial synonym of "racial anthropology".

PHYSIOGNOMICAL FACE HEIGHT (tr-gn)

The distance between trichion and gnathion.

PILASTRIC INDEX

A measure of shape at the midshaft of the femur, the ratio of the anterior-posterior length to the transverse breadth, multipilied by 100.

PILE-DWELLING

Mediterranid-Alpinid hybrid, in Czekanowski's typology.

PIRIFORM OPENING

The aperture of the nasal passages in the facial skeleton.

PLANID

The western subvariety of Silvid, prevalent in central and northern-central regions of North America (e.g. the Dakota). Cf. Appalacid.

PLANOCCIPITAL

Possessing a flat occiput; the opposite of curvoccipital. Cf. occipital flattening.

Planoccipital (Dinarid) skull              Curvoccipital (Mediterranid) skull

PLATYMERIC INDEX

The ratio of the anteroposterior diameter of the femur to its lateral diameter, multiplied by 100.

PLATYRRHINE

Possessing a nasal index of 51.1 to 58.0; broad-nosed.

PLESIOMORPHIC

= primitive. Cf. apomorphy.

PLICA PALPEBRONASALIS

= epicanthic fold.

POGONION (pg)

The most anterior single point on the median sagittal plane of the mandible; the front of the chin.

POLYCENTRISM

Franz Weidenreich's theory of multiple centers of human evolution connected by a network of genic exchanges.

POLYGENIC TRAIT

Inherited trait that is determined by genes at two or more loci. Simple Mendelian rules of dominance do not apply to the complex interaction of these genes. As a result, phenotypes may appear as apparent blends or intermediate expressions. Skin and hair color are polygenic traits. Many polygenic traits are also influenced by environmental factors.

POLYNESID (Amphinesian Race (Huxley); Pacific Race (Agassiz))

The primary racial type of the Pacific Islands. Polynesids are tall and robust, with medium-high and slightly angular faces, moderately broad lips and nose, and wide eyelid apertures. The skin is light brown, the hair is wavy and black, and the eyes are dark brown. This type is especially prevalent in Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, New Zealand, the Society Isles and the Easter Isles. In Micronesia it is strongly mixed with Melanesids and Paleo-Mongolids.

A set of species descended from more than one common ancestor. The ultimate common ancestor of all species in the group is not a member of the polyphyletic group.

POLYTYPIC

Taxon including several subordinate taxa. A polytypic species, e.g., is a species that occurs in two or more forms (races or subspecies), such as the regionally differentiated Homo sapiens. Cf. monotypic, Rassenkreis.

PONTID (Cherkess type)

Mediterranid subtype. Pontids are found in greatest concentration in southeastern Europe (the Balkans, southern Romania, the Ukraine), and predominate in regions immediately adjacent to the Black Sea (including parts of the Caucasus), after which Bunak named the type (Pontic; to the ancient Greeks, the Black or Euxine Sea was known as Pontos, "the Sea"). The type is tall (yet not as tall as the Atlanto-Mediterranid type) and quite gracile, with smooth facial features, and is characterized by a high skull, a narrow forehead, somewhat narrow apertures of the eyes, and a lighter pigmentation compared to the Mediterranid mean. Cf. North-Pontid.

Bulgarian Pontid

POPULATION

Group of individuals that form a breeding unit.

PORION (po)

Paired points at the most lateral part of the superior margin of the external auditory meatus. It is used to define the Frankfort Horizontal Plane and to measure mastoid length.

PORION-BREGMA HEIGHT (po-b)

Measured with head spanner. Place the two ear rods in the external auditory meatus on the right and left porions and the end of the calibrated bar on bregma. Read porion-bregma height directly from the calibrated bar.

POSITIONAL PLAGIOCEPHALY

Occipital flattening resulting from habitual placement of the infant's head on a hard surface, e.g. a cradle board. Cf. annular constriction, cradling.

POSTAURALE (pa)

The most posterior point on the free margin of the ear.

POSTERIOR (dorsal)

The back side of the body.

POSTORBITAL CONSTRICTION

In superior view, a marked constriction in the skull immediately behind the orbits and a supraorbital torus.

PREADAPTATION

A characteristic evolved by an ancestral species or population that serves an adaptive though different function in a descendant species or population.

PREAURALE (pra)

The point at which a straight line from the postaurale, perpendicular to the long axis of the auricle, meets the base of the auricle.

PŘEDMOST

A series of Aurignacian skulls found at Předmost in Moravia, present-day Slovakia. Dating from ~25,000 BC, they are among the earliest specimens of modern humans ever excavated. They are rather robust, and it has been theorized that their features indicate Neanderthal as well as modern Homo sapiens origin.

 
Předmost III                    Předmost IV

PRE-PONTID

According to Lundman’s typology, an extraordinary dolichocephalic racial strain, supposedly extinct, but traces may be found in the Balkans.

PRIMITIVE (plesiomorphic; protomorphic)

Pertaining to a trait or combination of traits present in an ancestral form. Cf. progressive.

PROCESS

Projection or outgrowth of tissue from a larger body.

PROGNATHOUS

Possessing forward-projecting jaws; an angle of -79,9°. Negrids, Australids and Veddids exhibit some of the highest degrees of prognathism of modern humans.

PROGRESSIVE

In certain approaches to physical anthropology, progressive is a relative term applied to the antithesis of primitive; "progressive traits" appear evolutionarily removed (i.e. significantly) from those of an ancestral form, as contrasted with traits that more nearly recall the latter (="primitive traits").

PRONASALE (prn)

The most protruded point of the nasal tip.

PROSTHION (pr) (alveon)

The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the maxilla between the central incisors in the mid-sagittal plane. Note that in measuring basion-prosthion length and palate length, prosthion is not positioned on the inferior margin of the advanced bony parts between the incisors, but is more anteriorly located on the anterior surface of the alveolar process. In measuring upper facial height, however, prosthion is located on the inferior tip of the alveolar process. In cases of a defective or resorbed alveolar process, determination of prosthion becomes uncertain or impossible, and upper facial height cannot be measured.

PROTO-MALAYID (Dayakid (Lundman))

Nesid (Paleo-Mongolid) subtype principally associated with the Dayak people of Borneo. Proto-Malayids are mixed with Veddids, Melanesids and Negritids, and retain less of their Mongolid character than do Deutero-Mongolids.

PROTOMORPHIC

= primitive.

PROXIMAL

Closest part nearest the trunk or head.

PTERIC REGION (pt)

The upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid, with the bordering bones – frontal, parietal and temporal.

PTERION

A paired point on the upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid. This is more often a region than a point.

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM (PE, "Punk Eek")

The theory which states that most biological species exhibit little evolutionary change throughout their history, and that when change occurs, it occurs sporadically and over relatively short periods of time. The opposite of gradualism. Cf. stasis.

PUEBLID

A northern subvariety of Centralid, in Biasutti's typology.

PUNNETT SQUARE

Simple graphical method of showing all of the potential combinations of offspring genotypes that can occur and their probability given the parent genotypes. Punnett squares are commonly used by genetics counselors to predict the odds of a couple passing on particular inherited traits.

PYGMID

1. = Bambutid ("African Pygmid"); 2. = Negritid ("Asian Pygmid")

PYGMY

1) An individual of unusually small size; 2) African Pygmy, i.e. Bambutid ("Negrillo", "African Pygmid").

PYKNIC (endomorphic (Sheldon))

A stocky individual (the opposite of a leptosome). Kretschmer considered pyknics to be more likely to develop manic-depressive disorders.

PYKNOMORPHIC

Approaching the constitution of a pyknic (the opposite of leptomorphic).

QIANGID (Tibetid)

The Mongolid subtype of the Tibetans - a blend of mostly Middle-Sinid with Tungid (Kumid subtype) and low-level Europid elements.

QUEENSLAND NEGRITO

= Barrinean.

R

RACE

RACISM

The belief that one race is superior to others.

RECOMBINATION

The genetic union of traits originally associated with diverse parental stocks.

RED QUEEN PRINCIPLE

The principle, proposed in 1973 by the evolutionary biologist Leigh van Valen (1935 -) which states that for an evolutionary system, continuing development is needed just in order to maintain its fitness relative to the systems with which it is co-evolving.

RED RACE

= Indianid, in Blumenbach's typology.

REDUCTION

Evolutionary process resulting in a type which is smaller than its ancestral prototype, and which has changed accordingly in certain proportions (infantilization often results). Bambutids (Pygmies) are extreme examples of reduction.

RE-EMERGENCE

The reappearance of an older racial entity through the vehicle of a mixed population by the mechanism of differential selection.

RELATIVE SHOULDER BREADTH

biacromial diameter * 100
                  stature

RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT

sitting height * 100
           stature

RELATIVE SPAN

span * 100
   stature

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION

The inability of a population to interbreed with another, the normal definition of a biological species.

REST POSITION

The inclination of a line from the top of the external auditory meatus to the lowest point on the inferior orbital rim when the subject’s head is in normal, relaxed position.

RETROGNATHOUS

Possessing a backward-projecting jaw; An angle of 90+°.

RETZIUS, ANDERS

(1796 - 1860) An acclaimed Swedish professor of anatomy, whose studies of the human cranium and its measurements engendered the concept of cephalic index and the classifications of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic, the import of which has been inseparably tied to the field of physical anthropology ever since.

Anders Retzius

RIPLEY, WILLIAM Z.

American anthropologist. He discarded Deniker's decipartite system (but adopted his use of the term Nordic), and introduced the idea of a tripartite racial typology for Europe, comprising the Nordic (formerly Teutonic), Alpine and Mediterranean races. He considered the Alpine to be the original European race, having originated in Asia before settling in central Europe, and from which the northern (Nordic) and southern (Mediterranean) races had later sprung. Ripley is primarily remembered for his The Races of Europe (1899), in which he outlined his typology using anthropometric measurements.

ROBUST

Term used by physical anthropologists and paleoanthropologists to refer to a big-boned and muscular body (characterized by robusticity). Cf. gracile.

ROMER'S RULE

The generalization that new adaptations are often allowed by evolutionary changes that initially better adapt a species to its old way of life.

RUFOUS; RUFOSITY

Red-haired; red-hairedness. 

S

SAGITTAL SUTURE

The suture uniting the two parietal bones.

SAHARID (South-Mediterranean)

A tall, gracile and high-skulled Mediterranid found in the southern Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.

Saharid (after Lundman)

SALTATION

A sudden change from one generation to the next, that is large, or very large, in comparison with the usual variation of an organism.

SANID

Khoisanid subvariety of the Bushmen, characterized by more reduced and infantile features and less Negrid admixture than Khoids.

Sanid woman (after
Knußmann)

SAVOLAXID

According to Lundman’s typology, the easternmost of the two East-Baltid subtypes (the other being Tavastid).

SCANDO-LAPPID RACE

= Lappid, in the typology of Lundman.

SCHREINER, ALETTE

[entry pending]

SCHREINER, KRISTIAN EMIL

[entry pending]

SCHWIDETZKY, ILSE

(1907 - 1997) German anthropologist, among the masters of European statistical physical anthropology. Follow this link for Schwidetzky's racial map of Europe.

SELECTION

= natural selection.

SELECTIVE PRESSURES

Forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals. Cf. natural selection.

SELLION (s)

The deepest point of the nasofrontal angle.

SEMANG

Negritos (members of the Negritid race) of the Malay peninsula, characterized by a stature of less than 1.5 meters, a round or intermediate head form, a low and rounded forehead which projects over the nasal root, a short, depressed and pyramid-shaped nose, moderate to full lips, a poorly developed chin, and often slightly projecting jaws. The eyes, which are a deep brown, are wide open and round, and show no obliquity. The hair is dark brown (nearly black) and tightly curled, and the skin is black or very dark brown. Cf. Aeta, Andamanid.

Semang woman of
Negritid type

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

The hereditary differences in morphology between individuals of different sex within the same species, race or subtype. Sexual dimorphism in humans often involves differences in stature, muscular development and general robusticity. Greater sexual dimorphism equals greater differences.

SEXUAL SELECTION

A type of natural selection that operates on only one sex within a species. It is the result of competition for mates and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits. Cf. fitness.

SHANID

A Paleo-Mongolid and South-Sinid blend, typified by the mostly Burmese Shan.

Shanid (Shan man)

SIBIRID

Arctic Mongolid stock indigenous to Siberia, and comprising the East-Sibirid and West-Sibirid types.

SIGMOID NOTCH

The curved upper surface of the ascending ramus of the mandible between the coronoid process and the condyle.

SILVID (Eastern American Temperate Race (Agassiz, roughly equivalent))

Indianid type, so named by von Eickstedt. Tall and broadly-built, robust mesocephals of the central and eastern Canadian forest regions, Appalachia (the Mohicans, Delawares, and Iroquois) and the prairies of the Midwest (the Dakota). The Silvid type is characterized by a longish, rectangular face with notable facial flatness, a very striking, narrow to medium-broad nose with a convex and sometimes aquiline profile (Lundman described the type as "dinariomorphic", i.e. dinariform). The eyelids are sometimes narrow and slanting, and featuring epicanthus (most common among women and children). The hair is smooth or tight, and the skin light- to medium-brown with a yellowish, reddish or coppery tinge. There are two subvarieties, the western planid and the eastern appalacid.

Pertaining to the "Mongolid type" of teeth, characterized by e.g. shovel-shaped incisors, single-rooted upper first premolars, and triple rooted lower first molars. Contrasted with sundadonty.

SITTING HEIGHT

The height of the human body from chair to vertex, taken while the subject is sitting erect.

SITTING HEIGHT INDEX (cormic index)

sitting height * 100
      total stature

SKANDONORDID

= Hallstatt Nordid (in a more general sense than Götatyp), in Lundman's typology.

SKULL

The cranium and the mandible.

 
Anterior view               Anatomical view

SMALL MEDITERRANEAN

= Gracile-Mediterranid, in the typology of Carleton S. Coon.

SONORID

= Margid, in Biasutti's typology.

SOUTH AMERICAN TEMPERATE RACE

All South American Indianid types, in the typology of Agassiz.

SOUTH-MEDITERRANID

SOUTH-SINID (Sudsinid (German sp.))

Sinid subtype. South-Sinids are characterized by wider faces and noses, higher cephalic indices, very high height-length indices, lower fat ratios and medium-short stature.

South-Sinid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)

SPAN

SPECIATION

The evolution on new biological species.  There are four "modes" of speciation: allopatric, parapatric, sympatric and polyploidy.

SPECIES (biological species)

The basic unit of biodiversity; taxonomic category ranking below genus and above subspecies (race). Biological species are characterized by reproductive isolation.

SPHENOID BONE

A single, irregular, wedge-shaped bone at the base of the skull, which forms a part of the floor of the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae; this bone is referred to as the keystone of the cranial floor because it articulates with all the other cranial bones.

SQUAMA

The flat portion of a cranial bone.

STABILIZING SELECTION

Selection against extreme forms of a trait. In the case of polygenic traits that are expressed as a continuum of phenotypes, such as stature, it would be selection for people who are in the middle of the range and against those who are very tall or very short. The result would be fewer people who are at the extremes in height. In the case of a trait controlled by only two alleles, it would be selection against both homozygotes and for the heterozygote. An example is nature selecting for people who are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele in a malarial environment. Cf. directional selection, disruptive selection.

STAPHYLION (sta)

The single point on the posterior hard palate where the palatal suture is crossed by a line drawn tangent to the curves of the posterior margin of the palatal bones. It is used to measure palatal length.

STASIS

Little or no evolutionary change occurring over a long period of time; cf. punctuated equilibrium.

STEATOPYGIA

Accumulation of fat on the buttocks, a characteristic of Khoisanids and Andamanids, and reported among Bambutids. It is a specifically female trait, but it also occurs, albeit to a much lesser extent, among the men.

Steatopygous female

STOMION (sto) (point buccal)

The midpoint of the labial fissure when the lips are closed naturally.

STRANDID (Keltoïd)

Reduced, infantilized, heavily pigmented (brown-eyed, nearly black-haired, and somewhat "swarthy") brachycephals (C.I. 83) of the western Norwegian coast (especially the northwestern provinces, with a focal point in Sunnmøre). Strandids are typically rather euryprosopic, with mesorrhine, concave noses. Judging from their general bodily attributes, they are undoubtedly the products of alpinization (probably local), but the exact derivation of the type is obscured by the lack of relevant skeletal material. Strandid individuals are not numerous, and are usually mixed with the local Borreby, whence it has been suggested that the Strandid is merely a more completely alpinized variety or end-type of this taller, more robust brachycephal. However, this theory raises the question of pigmentation, as Borrebys are rather depigmented on average. An alternate hypothesis involves the alpinization of a Tydal population. The Strandid type may have ties to the western Norwegian Fosna Culture (ca. 8000 BC - 5000 BC).

Strandid (from Die
Somatologie der
Norweger by K.E.
Schreiner)

SUB-ADRIATIC

= Norid, according to Deniker's typology.

SUBALARE (sbal)

The point on the lower margin of the base of the nasal ala where the ala disappears into the upper lip skin.

SUBAURALE (sba)

The lowest point on the inferior border of the ear lobule.

SUBBRACHYCEPHALIC

Possessing a cephalic index of 80.01 to 83.33 (according to the French system); moderately round/short/broad-headed.

SUBDOLICHOCEPHALIC

Possessing a cephalic index of 75.01 to 77.77 (according to the French system); moderately long/narrow-headed.

SUBLABIALE (sl)

The midpoint of the labiomental sulcus.

SUBNASALE (sn) (acanthion)

In the midline, the junction between the lower border of the nasal septum and the cutaneous portion of the upper lip.

SUB-NORDID

In the typologies of Montandon (Subnordique) and Czekanowski, a Nordid altered by Alpinid admixture; predominant in northern France; in Deniker's typology, it signifies a different type. SNPA account here (according to Montandon).

SUBSPECIES

Taxonomic category below the level of species, illustrating the evolutionary tendency towards speciation; subspecies differ morphologically, and there is limited gene flow between different subspecies, but no reproductive isolation. The modern human races and their subdivisions may be considered subspecies of the species Homo sapiens.

SUDANID

Negrid subtype. The "standard Negrid", associated with the general area extending from Senegambia to central Sudan. Sudanids are tall, broad-shouldered, robust and muscular, and are characterized by prognathism, extremely broad and inflated noses with flattened nasal roots, and characteristically bulging lips. The skull is long and narrow (c.i. 73 - 77), high-vaulted, with a strongly projecting occipital region. The forehead is steep and narrow, and the face is large and rather long. The mouth is quite large, and the ears are small. The chin is weak, and sometimes receding. The skin color is rather dark.

Sudanid (after Glowatzki)

SUDETIAN TYPE (Pre-Slavic type (Czekanowski))

Pertaining to the "Indian type" of teeth, as contrasted with sinodonty.

SUPERAURALE (sa)

The highest point on the superior border of the helix.

SUPERCILIARE (sci)

The highest point on the upper margin of the middle portion of the eyebrow.

SUPERCILIARY REGION

The browridge area, literally the region above the eyelids.

SUPERIOR (cranial)

SUPERIOR ORBITAL BREADTH (fz-g) (supraorbital half-breadth)

Measured on the right and left sides of the head using sliding calipers. Place the tip of the fixed arm at the frontozygomatic suture and slide the arm medially until it touches glabella.

SUPERIOR ORBITAL CONTOUR AND SUPERIOR ORBITAL RIM CONTOURS (fz-g-fz)

Measured in relation to glabella and the frontozygomatici.

SUPERNASALE (spn)

A point on the median sagittal plane where the nose begins to project forward, as indicated by a change of direction of the profile.

SUPRA-

Prefix meaning above or over.

SUPRAMASTOID RIDGES (mastoid crests)

Bony crests above the mastoids, usually on the temporal bones alone, but extending in some cases onto the parietals.

SUPRAORBITAL ARC AND HALF-ARCS (t-g-t)

Measured in relation to glabella and the tragia.

SUPRAORBITAL BREADTH (fz-fz)

Measured with spreading calipers. Place tips of the calipers at the right and left frontozygomaticus.

SUPRAORBITAL DEPTH (g-t)

Measured between glabella and tragion.

SUPRAORBITAL HALF-BREADTH

= superior orbital breadth.

SUPRAORBITAL REGION

The area of the frontal bone immediately above the orbits.

SUPRAORBITAL TORUS

An exaggerated form of browridge in which the prominence is continuous.

SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

The idea that those individuals in a species that have characteristics selected for by nature are biologically the most fit. They are the ones who more frequently survive to be the parents of the next generation. The fittest individuals are not necessarily the strongest, largest, quickest, or smartest. This concept was central to Charles Darwin's idea of natural selection.

SYMPATRIC SPECIATION

The evolution of reproductively isolated populations (species) inhabiting the same geographical area.

SYMPLESIOMORPHY

The possession of a character state that is primitive (plesiomorphic) and shared between two or more taxa. Shared possession of a symplesiomorph character state is not evidence that the taxa in question are related.

SYNAPOMORPHY

The possession of apomorphic features by two or more taxa in common. If the two groups share a character state that is not the primitive one, it is plausible that they are related evolutionarily, and only synapomorphic character states can be used as evidence that taxa are related. Phylogenetic trees are built by discovering groups united by synapomorphies.

SYRID

In the typology of Lundman, a subvariety of Arabid, "with a lower frequency of blood type gene r."

TACHE NOIRE ("black spot")

Geographical area characterized by low stature, for whatever reason.

TACHYTELY

With reference to evolution, a word coined by G. G. Simpson and pertaining to a rapid rate of evolutionary change. Cf. bradytely, horotely.

TAIGID (Baikal)

Tungid subtype of the Tungus-speaking region of Siberia, between the Yenisei River and Chukotka-Kamchatka, and between the Arctic Ocean and China/Mongolia. Tungids are characterized by short stature, a pyknomorphic build, a maximal Mongolid facial structure, high frequency of epicanthus, a low and wide skull, a very high, wide and flat face, orthognathism, notable forward projection of malars, very little nasal projection, and thin lips. The hair is straight and soft, the eyes and hair are sometimes mixed rather than black, and the skin is very light, sometimes even approaching Northern European standards. Pilous development is scant. A lower-faced south Siberian Taigid subvariety may be distinguished among western Evenks and the Turkic-speaking Tuvans and Tofalars.

Evenk woman of
Taigid type

TASMANID

Frizzly-haired Australid subtype which, until the middle of the 19^th Century, inhabited most of Tasmania. Tasmanids are considered extinct, however certain continental Australians claim direct descent from this population.

Tasmanid (Truganini,
"the last of the
Tasmanians"

TAURID

Europid parafamily, the result of a convergent evolutionary tendency, so named for the association of such features with the Taurus Mts. in Turkey. The chief Taurid strains are Dinarid (Dinarid proper/Adriatid and Norid) and Armenoid (Armenid, Anatolid and Caucasid/Mtebid). The Taurid morphology is characterized by a particular set of features, most importantly moderately tall to tall stature, a short but rather narrow and planoccipital head, and a large, convex nose - the result of a process of dinaricization upon unrelated stocks, rather than of mutual origins. Central Asiatics Pamirids may be considered at least partially Taurid.

TAVASTID

According to Lundman’s typology, the westernmost of the two East-Baltid subtypes (the other being Savolaxid).

TAXON

Monophyletic group of organisms recognized as a formal unit, at any level of a hierarchic classification (pl. taxa).

TAXONOMY

The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

TEMPERATE ASIATIC RACE

= Sinid and Tungid (“Neo-Mongolid”), in the typology of Agassiz.

The biological rule stating that populations living in a cold, dry environment tend to have smaller nasal indices (long and narrow noses), whereas populations living in warm, humid regions tend to have large nasal indices (broad and short noses).

TIBETID

= Qiangid.

TORUS

One of the several bony ridges or crests which may occur on the cranium.

TOTAL CRANIOFACIAL HEIGHT (v-gn)

Measured in the midline using double sliding calipers and a level.

TOTAL FACE HEIGHT (morphological face height) (n-gn)

= morphological face height.

TOTAL FACIAL INDEX

= facial index.

TRAGION (t)

Located at the notch above the tragus, where the upper edge of the cartilage disappears into the skin of the face.

TRANSVERSE PLANE (horizontal plane)

Divides the body into a superior (or upper) and an inferior (or lower) section.

TRICHION (tr)

The midpoint of the hairline.

TROPICAL ASIATIC RACE

= Paleo-Mongolid, in the typology of Agassiz.

TRØNDER

A special Scandinavian composite type, morphologically essentially Nordid (or Nordoid), and characterized by a certain amount of internal variation (cf. Hardanger type, Orkdal type, Valle type). The principal constituents are a tall, high-headed Corded variety, a local, mostly unreduced Cro-Magnid, and elements of Nordid proper (Hallstatt) as well as Borreby. SNPA account here.

Norwegian Trønder
(from The Races of
Europe by Carleton
S. Coon)

TUNGID (Kumid (Lundman))

One of the two basic Mongolid types of northern Asia, the other being Sinid. The Tungid is characterized by a wide face, high cephalic index, low height-length index, high subcutaneous fat ratios, extreme Mongolid features (with reference to the development of epicanthus, cheekbone morphology etc.) and moderately tall stature. Tungids are found in Siberia, Mongolia, and Turkestan, which are all Altaic-speaking territories. Subtypes: Amur-Sakhalinid, Taigid, Kumid.

Tungid (from the Fischer
Lexikon)

TURANID (Turko-Tatar type (Deniker))

Central Asiatic type, named (and later renamed) by Deniker (type touranien). In von Eickstedt's typology, Pamirids signify relatively unmixed Turanids, whereas Aralids are Turanids showing Mongolid influence of the Tungid variety. For some anthropologists, the term still applies in a less specific fashion to Europid-Mongolid mixed populations of Central Asia.

TURKO-TATAR TYPE (Race turko-tatar)

= Turanid, in Deniker's later typology.

TYDAL TYPE

A very tall, heavily pigmented Cro-Magnoid, aboriginal to the central Scandinavian regions. The Tydal type is robust, short-legged and long-armed, and very dolichocephalic (C.I. 73). The face is moderately broad to broad, the chin is prominent, the forehead is low and rather steep, the browridges are strong and the nose is typically short, snubbed and rather wide. The hair is blackisk brown and the eyes rather dark, and beard growth is strong. The type was first observed in the Norwegian parish of Tydal in Trøndelag, and its presence was later documented in adjacent Swedish regions. In all likeliness this unique population has lived in isolation for millennia, but nowadays the type is dispersed all around the Scandinavian Peninsula as a result of increased mobility and city-ward migration, and is nowhere found in any significant concentration. The Tydal type is generally regarded as a Paleo-Atlantid variety.

Tydal types (from Lundman's Dalarnas
Folk - Typer och Härstamning (1948))

TYMPANIC PLATE

(1) A complete or incomplete specimen which serves as the base for the name of a taxon; (2) a single individual used to epitomize a sample.

TYPOLOGY

Classification according to hierarchically arranged sets of diagnostic criteria.

ULOTRICHI

One of the two “macroraces” of Huxley, including “Bushmen” (Khoisanids), “Negritos” (Negritids, excluding Andamanids), “Negroes” (Negrids), and “Mincopies” (Andamanids). Cf. Leiotrichi.

ULTRABRACHYCEPHALIC

Possessing a cephalic index of 90.0 to 94.9; extremely round-/short-/broad-headed.

ULTRADOLICHOCEPHALIC

Possessing a cephalic index of 55.0 to 59.9; extremely long-/narrow-headed.

UP

= Upper Paleolithic.

UPPER CHEEK DEPTH

= orbito-tragial distance.

UPPER EYELID HEIGHT (os-ps)

Measured between orbitale and palpebrale superii.

UPPER FACE DEPTH (n-t)

Measured on the left and right sides of the face using spreading calipers. Place the anterior tip of the calipers at the nasion, and lightly touch the tragus with the posterior tip; reverse for the other side of the face.

UPPER FACE HEIGHT (n-pr)

On the skull, the distance from nasion to prosthion; on the living, the distance from nasion to the lowest point on the gums between the two upper median incisors, corresponding as nearly as possible to the measurement on the skull. Measured with sliding calipers.

UPPER FACE INCLINATION (g-sn)

Measured in relation to glabella and subnasale.

UPPER FACIAL INDEX (U.F.I)

upper face height * 100
maximum facial breadth

According to Martin (1928):

U.F.I.        - 44.9 = hypereuryene (very long-/narrow-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 45.0 - 49.9 = euryene (short-/broad-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 50.0 - 54.9 = mesene (of moderate upper facial form)
U.F.I. 55.0 - 55.9 = leptene (long-/narrow-upper-faced)
U.F.I. 60.0 -        = hyperleptene (very long-/narrow-upper-faced)

UPPER LIP HEIGHT (sn-sto)

Measured between stomion and subnasale.

UPPER LIP INCLINATION (sn-ls)

Measured in relation to subnasale and labiale superius.

UPPER PALEOLITHIC (UP; archaic spelling: Upper Palaeolithic)

Any of the physical types of Homo sapiens known from the Upper Paleolithic period; sometimes used exclusively of Cro-Magnoids and their modern descendants.

UPPER THIRD FACE DEPTH (n-t)

Measured between nasion and tragion.

UPPER VERMILION HEIGHT (ls-sto)

Measured between stomion and labiale superius.

URALID

Sometimes used synonymously with Lappoid, sometimes with reference to other, slightly obscure Central Asian types.

Inherited differences between individuals; the basis of all evolutionary change.

VÄSTMANLAND TYPE 

The Scandinavian variety of Dalo-Falid, in the typology of Lundman.

VEDDID (Dravidian (Deniker and others); Indo-Aboriginal; Weddid (German sp.))

Southeastern Asian racial type, considered a member of the greater "Australoid" group, however the relation to Australids is uncertain and provisional, and may be nothing but a shared retention of the generalized Pleistocene human morphology. Veddids are small-statured, gracile and stocky (pyknomorphic). The head is moderately low, and the face is roundish and euryprosopic and often characterized by strongly developed browridges. The nose is moderately broad, short and snub, with extended alae, and the mouth is "childlike", bending down at the corners. The skin tone varies between medium and very dark brown, the hair is wavy and black, and the eyes are brown. Veddids are most common in the forest mountains of India and the park jungles of Sri Lanka (the Gondid and Malid, incl. transitional Indo-Melanid and Melanid varieties); they constitute an important element in the population of the Indian Subcontinent. Their eastward distribution from India is characterized by a sliding transition to Paleo-Mongolids.

Veddid (from the
Fischer Lexikon)

VENTRAL

Relating to or situated on or close to the anterior aspect of the body.

VERTEX (v)

The highest single point on the midsagittal section of the skull when positioned in the Frankfort Horizontal Plane.

VISTULAN

In Deniker’s typology, a sub-variety of his Oriental type.

VOLGID

According to Lundman, a very small, dark, high-skulled and dolichocephalic type of eastern Russia; it is characterized by a broad, somewhat primitive face and a small, plump nose. According to Lundman, this type is also found westward to Bohemia, where it is known as the "Sudeten-race". The exact referent of this category is uncertain, as its supposed feature combination is widely dispersed throughout central and eastern Europe, through the medium of several discrete racial types. Cf. Sudetian type.

VOMER

A roughly triangular bone that forms the inferior and posterior of the nasal septum.

VON LUSCHAN CHROMATIC SCALE

A standard skin colour determination reference, used by such prominent anthropologists as Carleton S. Coon.

von Luschan scale

VORDERASIATISCHER TYPUS ("Hither-Asiatic type")

= Armenid, in the typology of Günther.

WALLOONS TYPE

Specific Borreby-Alpinid blended type associated with the Belgian Walloons.

WEDDID

= Veddid, German spelling.

WEST-ALPINID

= Alpinid, i.e. the western-central European variety, as opposed to Gorid; sometimes applies specifically to the French Alpinids.

WEST-BALTID

A largely unreduced, only slightly balticized Cro-Magnid (East-Cro-Magnid). It represents one endpoint of the "Baltid continuum", opposite to East-Baltid (or Lappoid, in a broader sense). It is found in the Baltics, and to a lesser extent in Scandinavia and northeastern Germany, and is transitional to Dalo-Falid and Borreby types.

West-Baltid (Valdas
Adamkus)

WESTERN AMERICAN TEMPERATE RACE

Roughly equivalent to Pacifid, in the typology of Agassiz.

WESTERN EUROPEAN

= (West-)Alpinid, in Deniker's typology.

WESTISCH ("Western")

= Mediterranid, in Günther's typology.

WEST-MEDITERRANEAN

= Gracile-Mediterranid, in Lundman's typology.

WEST-SIBIRID

Arctic Mongolid variety, characterized by a convex nose, a receding forehead and darker pigmentation as compared to surrounding groups. The West-Sibirid type approached Indianid in several respects. It is found among peoples of West Siberia, e.g. Kets, Mansis, Nenets, Dolgans, and Nganasans. Cf. Sibirid, East-Sibirid.

West-Sibirid

WHITE RACE

= Europid, in Blumenbach's typology.

X

XANTHOCHROI

"Fair whites" of northern Europe, in Huxley's typology. They and the Melanochroi constitute the two main branches of the white ("Caucasic") race, according to his (rather outdated) system.

Y

YELLOW RACE

= Mongolid (excluding Indianid), in Blumenbach's typology.

Z

ZENTRALID

= Centralid, German spelling.

ZYGION (zy)

The most laterally positioned point on the zygomatic arches. The position of zygion is defined from the measurement of bizygomatic breadth.

ZYGOMATIC ARCH

The bony arch, formed of portions of the malar and temporal bones, which encloses the temporal muscles and serves as the upper attachment of the masseter.

ZYGOMATIC BONES (malars; cheekbones)

The triangular bones on either side of the face below the eyes. They form the prominences of the cheeks and part of the outer wall and floor of the orbits.

ZYGOMATIC PROCESS

The temporal and maxilla bones, which border on the zygomatic.